Fowler’s Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy (Volume 9)

Cover
Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy, Volume 9
Copyright Page
A Tribute to Murray E. Fowler
Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Section 1: General
1 The Role of Veterinary Advisors in Animal Management Plans
	Introduction
	Background
	Veterinary Advisor Responsibilities
		Additional Husbandry and Regulatory Roles
	Conclusion
	References
2 Risk Analysis Framework Guidance for Wildlife Health Professionals
	Risk Analysis
		Jargon and Standards
			Global Animal Trade and Infectious Disease Risk
			Wildlife Disease Risk and the Wildlife Interface
		Conducting the Process
		Case Study: Characterization of the Risk (Pathways, Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Consequences) That the Trade of Wildlife and Wildlife Products Poses to the US Food and Agriculture Systems and Public Health
			Problem Formulation
			Hazard Identification
			Risk Assessment
			Risk Management
			Risk Communication
	Summary
	Acknowledgments
	References
3 Wildlife Technologies
	Biotelemetry and Biologging
	Environmental Loggers
	Digital Imaging
		Video Systems
	Conclusions
	References
4 International Sample Movement
	Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
		Veterinary Import Permits
		Nagoya Protocol
		Packaging and Labeling Samples
		Shipping and Port of Entry
	Conclusions
	References
5 A Practical Guide for Statistics in Wildlife Studies
	Introduction
	Q1: Where Do I Start?
	Q2: What Study Type Is Best for Me?
	Q3: What May Affect the Validity of My Study?
	Q4: How Many Animals (or Samples) Do I Need for My Study?
	Q5: What Is the Formula or Software I Need to Use for Sample Size and Power Calculations?
	Q6: Is My Study Invalid and/or Irrelevant Because of Small Sample Size?
	Q7: How Do I Need to Structure the Data to Be Able to Conduct the Statistical Analysis?
	Q8: What Do I Need to Do If the Observations in My Data Set Are Not Independent?
	Q9: Which Statistical Test/Method Do I Need to Analyze My Data?
	Q10: Are My Results Statistically Significant?
	Q11: How Do I Present and Summarize My Results?
	Q12: How Do I Communicate My Results?
	Conclusion
	References
6 Opportunities to Inspire the Next Generation of Veterinarians
	Introduction
	Booths
	Mentorship
	Veterinary Windows
	Public Dissections
	Education Programming
	Little Zoo Vets Program
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
7 Strategic Planning for Zoo Veterinary Operations
	Why Is Strategic Planning Important?
	What Are the Components of a Strategic Plan?
	How to Create a Strategic Plan?
		Get Support From Leadership
		Pick the Team
			Use of a Facilitator
		Set Aside Time and a Location
		Create, Renew, or Review Your Vision and Mission Statement
		Assess Your Overall Team/Environment
		Identify Strategic Objectives and Priorities
		Communicate Your Strategic Plan
		Empower and Expect Leaders and Team Members to Set Goals and Establish Accountability
		Review in Regular Intervals and Amend as Necessary
	Conclusion
	References
8 Organizational Influence
	Introduction
	People: How Relationships Impact Organizational Influence
	Begin With Humility
	Seek to Serve Others First
	Put Relationships Above Results
	Build Trust
	Honor Your Staff
	Connect With Purpose
	Practical Steps: Taking Your Influence to the Next Level
	Give Up Control to Gain Influence
	Create Principle-Based Standards
	Develop Leaders
		Example 1
		Example 2
	Looking Forward
	Acknowledgments
	References
9 Contingency Planning for All Hazards and Foreign Animal Disease
	Introduction
	What Is Contingency Planning? And Why Is It Needed?
	Contingency Planning Principles
	Contingency Planning Step 1: Form a Collaborative Team
	Contingency Planning Step 2: Understand the Situation
	Contingency Planning Step 3: Determine Goals and Objectives
	Contingency Planning Step 4: Plan Development
	Development of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Incident Annex Using Secure Zoo Strategy
	Contingency Planning Process Step 5: Plan Preparation, Review, and Approval
	Conclusion
	References
10 Veterinary Occupational Health and Safety in the Zoo and Wildlife Setting
	Introduction
	Acknowledgments
	References
11 Research Study Design
	Introduction
	Study Designs for Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Interventions
		Randomized Controlled Trials
		Crossover Trials
		Nonrandomized Studies
	Study Designs for Identification of Underlying Disease Etiologies
		Cohort Studies
		Case-Control Studies
		Cross-Sectional Studies
	Study Designs for Evaluation of Diagnostic Techniques
		Diagnostic Accuracy Studies
		Method Comparison Studies
		Reference Interval Studies
	References
Section 2: Animal Welfare
12 Overview of Animal Welfare in Zoos
	Introduction to Animal Welfare in Zoos
	Animal Welfare Assessments in Zoos
		Establishing Practical Guidelines for Assessments
	Animal Welfare Assessment Principles
	Animal Welfare Committees in Zoos
	Animal Welfare Departments
		Veterinarian’s Role in Zoo Animal Welfare
	Acknowledgments
	References
13 Stress and Animal Welfare—Endocrinological Evaluation
	Overview of the Stress Response
	Types of Samples Used for GC Assessment
	Validation Procedures
	References
14 A Systematic Approach in Diagnosing Behavior Problems
	Applied Behavior Analysis
	Comprehensive Behavioral History
	Thorough Physical Examination
	Acknowledgments
	References
15 Quality-of-Life Assessment and End-of-Life Planning for Geriatric Zoo Animals
	Introduction
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section 3: Conservation Medicine
16 Evaluating Camel Health in Kenya—An Example of Conservation Medicine in Action
	Introduction
	What Is a Conservation Medicine Approach and How Do Zoos Fit Within It?
	Project Design
	Program Outcomes to Date and Future Plans
	Future Work
	Concluding Thoughts on Conservation Medicine Programs
	References
17 Disease Risks to Native Wildlife From Zoos and Aquariums
	Introduction
	Risk Analysis
	References
18 Feral Cat Dilemma
	Brief Natural History of Cats
	Cats and Human Culture
	The Rise of Feral Cats
		The Controversy
		Stakeholders in the Controversy Over Feral Cats
	Cats Hunt—So What?
	Animal Welfare—From Both Sides
	Public and Wildlife Health Concerns Related to Feral Cats
	Management Alternatives to Trap-Neuter-Release or Euthanasia
	The Role of Veterinarians in Feral Cat Management
	References
19 The United States Agency for International Development Emerging Pandemic Threats PREDICT Project—Global Detection of Emerging Wildlife Viral Zoonoses
	Introduction
	United States Agency for International Development Emerging Pandemic Threats PREDICT Project (2009–2014)
	PREDICT Approach
		Wildlife Surveillance at Human-Wildlife Interfaces
		Virus Detection and Discovery
		Information Management and Reporting
	PREDICT Results
		Novel Viruses (Table 19.1)
		New Models for Emergence
		Outbreak Response
	Next Steps: PREDICT 2014–2019
	References
20 Renewable Energy
	Introduction
	Bringing Renewable Energy Online in the United States: A Primer
	Wildlife Impacts From Specific Energy Sources
		Wind Energy
			Discussion
		Solar Photovoltaic and Concentrating Solar Thermal Power
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section 4: Reproduction
21 Female Infertility in Zoo Animals
	Female Infertility
		Causes of Subfertility Associated With Regular Cyclicity
			Male Subfertility
			Abnormal Genitalia
			Parturition-Related Injury
			Age-Related Changes
			Uterine Disease
			Breeding Management Errors
		Causes of Subfertility Associated With Irregular Cyclicity
			Intersex Conditions
			Poor Nutrition
			Endocrine Disorders
			Age-Related Changes
			Anovulatory Follicles and Persistent Corpora Lutea
		Causes of Subfertility Associated With Early Embryonic Loss
	References
22 Changes in Reproductive Management
	The Sustainability Crisis
	Reproductive Management
	Limiting Reproduction
	Genetic Management Versus Reproductive Management
	Lifetime Reproductive Planning
	References
23 Issues Surrounding Surplus Animals in Zoos
	Sustainable Populations
	Meeting the Demand
	Breeding Is “Natural”
	How to Deal With Surplus Animals
	The Public Perception
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section 5: Therapeutics
24 Stem Cell Therapy in Zoo Medicine
	What Are Stem Cells?
	How Do Stem Cells Work?
	Stem Cell Collection
	Stem Cells in Clinical Medicine
	Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Zoo Medicine
	References
25 Compounding Pharmacies
	Pharmaceutical Legislative History and Current Perspectives
	Compounding—What It Is and Is Not
	Appropriate Compounding Situations
	Compounding Relevance and Considerations for the Zoo and Wildlife Specialty
	Conclusion
	References
Section 6: Anesthesia and Analgesia
26 Sustained-Release and Long-Acting Opioid Formulations of Interest in Zoological Medicine
	Introduction
	Opioid Drugs
		Fentanyl
			Mammalian
			Avian
			Reptilian
		Buprenorphine
			Mammalian
			Avian
		Butorphanol
			Avian
	Summary
	References
27 Use of Naltrexone and Atipamezole in Emergency Response to Human Exposure to Ultra-Potent Opioids and Alpha-2 Agonists in Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
	Introduction
	Ultra-Potent Opioids and Alpha-2 Agonists Used in Zoo and Wildlife Anesthesia
		Ultra-Potent Opioids and Antagonists
			Etorphine
			Thiafentanil
			Carfentanil
			Etorphine, Thiafentanil, and Carfentanil Potency Comparisons
			Butorphanol
		Opioid Antagonists
		Ultra-Potent Alpha-2 Agonists and Antagonists
			Medetomidine
			Dexmedetomidine
		Other Alpha-2 Agonists
			BAM
		Alpha-2 Antagonists
	Routes and Significance of Accidental Exposure
		Routes of Exposure
		Significance of an Exposure
		Mathematics of Exposures
			Needle Stick Exposure
			Spray Exposure
	Medical Management for Accidental Veterinary Anesthetic Exposure
		Agent-Specific Resuscitation Protocols
		Ultra-Potent Opioids: Etorphine, Carfentanil, and Thiafentanil
		Alpha-2 Agonists: Medetomidine and Dexmedetomidine
		Exposure to a Combination of Potent Anesthetic Drugs
	Controversies in the Use of Antagonists in Human Exposure to Dangerous Drugs
		Naltrexone Use in Humans
		Atipamezole Use in Humans
		Legal Concerns
			Good Samaritan Law
			Duty to Rescue
	Summary
	References
28 Vaporizers and Field Anesthesia Equipment for Free-Ranging Wildlife
	Introduction
	Inhalant Anesthesia
	Basic Inhalant Pharmacology
	Vaporizers
	Gas Anesthesia at Altitude
	Anesthesia Machines
	Field Oxygen Support
	Oxygen Safety
	Field Ventilatory Support
	Patient Monitoring
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
29 Perianesthetic Monitoring
	Introduction
	Monitoring the Cardiovascular System
		Monitoring Heart Rate
			Auscultation Using an External or Esophageal Stethoscope
			Palpation of a Pulse
			Use of Pulse Monitors (e.g., Doppler, Pulse Oximeter, Arterial Pressure Waveform)
			Electrocardiogram
		Monitoring Heart Rhythm
			Electrocardiogram or Electrocardiograph
		Monitoring Arterial Blood Pressure
			Indirect (Riva-Rocci—"Return of flow”) or Noninvasive Methods
			Direct Methods
		Monitoring Central Venous Pressure
	Monitoring the Pulmonary System
		Ventilation
			Blood Gas Analysis
			Capnography
			Ventilometry and Clinical Assessment
		Oxygenation
			Measurement of PaO2
			Measurement of SaO2
			Relationship of SaO2 and PaO2
	Monitoring Body Temperature
	Laboratory Parameters
	Summary
	References
Section 7: Diagnostics
30 Wildlife Necropsy Primer
	Introduction
	Necropsy Basics
	Necropsy Examination
		Collection and Documentation of Relevant Historical Information
		External and Internal Examination
			Species/Age-Specific Considerations
			Outbreak Investigations
			Clean-Up and Carcass Disposal
		Sample Collection and Management
		Data Management and Sharing
		Communication
	Acknowledgments
	References
31 Use of Computed Tomography/Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Zoological Medicine
	Introduction
	Benefits of Cross-sectional Imaging in Zoological Medicine
	Equipment Considerations
		Equipment Access
		Selection of Computed Tomography Equipment
	Review of Cross-sectional Images
		Data Management
		Radiology Expertise
	Optimization of Computed Tomography for Zoological Applications
		Procedure Planning
		Patient Positioning and Anesthesia
		Scan Settings
		Contrast Enhancement
		Artifact Detection and Prevention
	Interventional Computed Tomography Applications
	Conclusions
	References
32 Moving Beyond Survey Radiographs
	Introduction
	Imaging Paradigm—Starting Point
	Imaging Paradigm—What Next
	Summary of Imaging Planning
	Future Directions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section 8: Emerging and Changing Infectious Diseases
33 Equine Herpesviruses and Interspecies Infections
	Equine Herpesvirus Background
	Diagnostics
	Experimental Interspecies Infections
	Nonexperimental Interspecies Infections
	Modes of Transmission
	To Vaccinate or Not?
	Conclusions
	References
34 Ebola Virus Disease in Great Apes
	Introduction
	Ebola Virus Disease
	Impact of Ebola Virus Disease on Great Apes
		Ebola Virus Disease in African Apes
		Ebola Virus Disease in Asian Apes
	Clinical Signs
	Transmission
	Reservoir
	Diagnostics
		Differential Diagnosis
	Control Measures
		Vaccination
		Carcass Disposal
	Future Directions
	References
35 Chagas Disease
	Background
	Epidemiology
		Hosts
		Vectors
		Transmission Routes
		Implications of Trypanosoma cruzi Genetic Diversity
	Pathogenesis
		Clinical Signs
		Pathology
	Diagnosis
	Treatment, Management, Prevention
	Zoonotic Potential
	Conclusion
	References
36 The Effects of Climate Change on Disease Spread in Wildlife
	Introduction
	Distribution of Pathogens, Parasites, and Vectors: Geographic and Altitudinal Spread
	Prevalence or Severity of Disease
	Emerging Diseases
	Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
37 Prion Diseases in Wildlife
	Transmission and Epidemiology
	Clinical Signs of Prion Disease in Zoo Animals and Farmed Mink
	Chronic Wasting Disease
		Epidemiology
		Clinical Disease
		Transmission
	Diagnostic Tools for Prion Disease
	Treatment and Control
	References
38 Avian Influenza
	Introduction
	Virology of Avian Influenza
	Pathogenicity: Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza and Low-Pathogenicity Avian Influenza
	The Changing Ecology of Avian Influenza Viruses
	The New Paradigm
	Biosecurity of Collections and Vaccination of Nondomestic Avian Species
	Summary
	References
39 Emerging Reptile Viruses
	Adenoviridae
	Herpesviridae
		Crocodilian Herpesviruses
		Squamate Herpesviruses
		Chelonian Herpesviruses
	Picornaviridae in Tortoises
	Nidovirales
	Arenaviridae in Snakes
	Other Newly Described Viruses of Reptiles
	References
40 Emerging Diseases in Bats
	Introduction
	Emerging Viral Zoonoses Carried by Bats
		Henipaviruses (Nipah and Hendra Viruses)
		Filoviruses (Ebola and Marburg Viruses)
		Coronaviruses (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome)
	Discussion
	References
41 Zika Virus
	Introduction: Arboviruses and Epidemiology
	Zika Virus: Molecular
	Epidemiology and Wild Hosts
	Pathogenesis of Zika Virus
		Clinical Manifestations
		Complete Blood Count and Blood Chemistry Panels
		Zika Virus Targets Various Organs and Causes Pathologic Damage
	Collecting Biological Materials to Investigate Zika Virus in Wildlife
	Diagnosis
	Necropsy
	Treatment, Prevention, and Control
	Final Considerations: Wildlife as Sentinels and Public Health—A Conservation Medicine Approach
	Acknowledgments
	References
42 An Overview of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome in the Middle East
	Introduction
	Virology
	Pathogenesis
	Epidemiology
	Transmission
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
	Control and Prevention
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
43 Disease Risk to Endemic Animals From Introduced Species on Madagascar
	Introduction
	Disease Risks From Introduced Amphibians
	Disease Risks From Introduced Birds
	Disease Risks From Humans
	Disease Risks From Exotic Carnivorans
	Disease Risks From Introduced Rodents
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section 9: Infectious Diseases
44 Techniques for Vaccinating Wildlife
	Motivations for Wildlife Vaccination
	Methods of Delivery
	Considerations for Vaccine Delivery
		Safety
		Efficacy
	Cautionary Principles
	The Future
	References
45 Brucellosis in North American Wildlife
	Brucellosis: An Introduction
	Cooperative State-Federal Brucellosis Eradication Program
	Brucellosis in Wildlife
	Brucellosis in Bison and Elk in the Greater Yellowstone Area
	Brucellosis in Wood Buffalo National Park Bison
		The Disease in Bison
		The Disease in Elk
	Brucellosis in Moose
	Brucellosis in Bighorn Sheep
	Brucellosis in Wild Pigs
	Brucellosis in Caribou
	Brucellosis in Wild Carnivores
	Brucellosis in Marine Mammals
	Future Directions and Conclusions
	References
46 Update on Melioidosis in Zoo and Wild Animals
	Etiology and Epidemiology
	Diagnosis
	Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Treatment, and Management
		Cetaceans
		Pinnipeds
		Primates
		Carnivores
		Herbivores
		Birds
		Other Species
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section 10: Aquatic
47 Techniques for Addressing Parasites in Saltwater Aquariums
	Diagnostics
	Treatment
	Challenges and Novel Treatment Considerations
		Degradation of Praziquantel and Formalin in a Recirculating System
		Capsalid Management in a Large Mixed-Species Saltwater Aquarium
		Leech Infestation in a Large Mixed-Species Saltwater Aquarium
		Monogeneans in Spotted Eagle Rays (Aetobatus narinari)
		Eimeria southwelli in Cownose Rays (Rhinoptera bonasus)
		Copper Immersion in Cownose Rays (Rhinoptera bonasus)
		Scuticociliatosis in Sygnathid and Elasmobranch Species
	Summary
	References
48 Touch-Pools
	Introduction
	Setting Goals
	Species Selection
	Planning
	Monitoring of Touch-Pools
	Staff and Guest Considerations
	Conclusion
	References
49 Sharks and Medicine
	Biology, Anatomy, and Physiology
	Husbandry and Management
	Restraint
		Manual Restraint
		Chemical Restraint
	Physical Examination
	Diagnostics
	Imaging
	Diseases
	Treatment and Therapies
	References
50 Decompression Medicine in Aquatic Species (Fish and Sea Turtle Focus)
	Introduction
	Decompression Medicine in Sea Turtles
		General
		Diagnosis
			Clinical History and Symptoms
			Diagnostic Imaging
			Laboratory Profile
			Postmortem Studies
		Treatment
	Decompression Medicine in Fish
		General
		Diagnosis
		Treatment
		Supportive Medical Treatment
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section 11: Amphibians and Reptiles
51 Euthanasia of Ectotherms
	Introduction
	Invertebrates
		Fishes
		Amphibians
		Reptiles
	References
52 Ranaviral Disease in Reptiles and Amphibians
	Geographic and Host Distribution
	Pathogenesis
	Clinical Signs and Pathology
	Diagnosis
	Treatment and Prevention
	Mortality Events
	Conservation
	References
53 Anuran Reproduction
	Anuran Reproductive Physiology
	Health Factors Affecting Reproduction
	Hormonal Regulation of Reproduction
	Exogenous Hormone Use in Anurans
	Exogenous Hormone Induction of Spermiation in Male Frogs
	Monitoring of Female Reproductive Status via Ultrasound
	Exogenous Hormone Induction of Spawning in Female Frogs
	Artificial Fertilization
	Role of Zoo Veterinarians in Anuran Reproduction
	References
54 Minimally Invasive Surgery of Amphibians
	General Considerations
	Clinical Applications of Minimally Invasive Surgery in Amphibians
		Laparoscopic Examination and Endoscopic Biopsy
		Endoscopic Orchiectomy
	Application of Minimally Invasive Surgery in Fundamental Research in Amphibians
	Recovery and Postoperative Management
	References
55 Medical Aspects of the Hungarian Meadow Viper Reintroduction
	Introduction and History of the Project
	Conservation Actions and Results
	Medical Considerations and Management
	Diagnostics and Special Medical Conditions
	References
56 Ophidiomycosis
	Background
	Etiology
	Distribution and Host Range
	Epidemiology
	Pathogenesis, Clinical Signs, and Disease Outcome
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
	Conclusion
	References
57 Fibropapillomatosis in Marine Turtles
	Etiology
	Epidemiology
	Clinical Signs
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
	Prognostic Indicators and Release Considerations
	References
58 Rehabilitation Medicine of Confiscated Turtles
	Introduction
	Be Prepared
	Triage and Initial Care
	Syndromes
		Dehydration
		Septicemia, Bacterial Enteritis
		Endoparasitism
		Starvation
		Syndromes Affecting Eyes
		Syndromes Affecting Skin or Shell
	Laboratory Support
	Conclusion
	References
59 Medical Evaluation of Crocodilians
	Introduction
	Medical Evaluation
		History
		Physical Examination of the Patient
			General Considerations
		Sex
		Age
		Body Score
		Integumentary System
		Immune System
		Circulatory System
		Respiratory System
		Digestive System
		Urinary System
		Reproductive System
		Nervous System
		Laboratory Examination
	Acknowledgment
	References
60 Reptile and Amphibian Analgesia
	Introduction
	Amphibian and Reptile Nociception of Pain: Neuroanatomic and Neurophysiologic Evidence
		Nociceptive Pathways
		Opioid Receptors and Endogenous Opioids
	Measurement and Quantification of Pain and Analgesia in Amphibians and Reptiles
	Analgesic Drugs
		Opioids and Opioid-Like Analgesics
		Parenteral Anesthetics
		Local Anesthetics as Analgesics
		Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
		Multimodal Analgesic Approaches
	References
61 Medical Aspects of Giant Tortoise Relocation in the Galápagos Islands
	History
	Restoration of Giant Tortoise Populations
	Head-Starting
	Ecosystem Restoration
	Surrogate Species Use as Ecologic Engineers
	Summary
	References
Section 12: Avian
62 Antifungals in Birds
	Aspergillosis Treatment (Table 62.1)
		Polyenes
			Amphotericin B
		Azoles
			Itraconazole
			Fluconazole
			Voriconazole
		Allylamines
			Terbinafine
			Flucytosine
	Non-Aspergillus Fungi Treatment
		Mucosal and Dermal Fungal Infections
		Macrorhabdus Ornithogaster
	References
63 Medical Management of Walk-Through Aviaries
	Species Choice
	Exhibit Design
	Flock Nutrition and Husbandry
	Animal Sourcing and Quarantine
	Screening for Zoonotic Agents
	Additional Disease Surveillance and Medical Intervention
	Public Health
	References
64 Systemic Isosporosis in Passerine Birds
	Clinical Signs and Lesions
	Diagnosis
	Treatment and Management
	Conclusion
	References
65 Bornaviruses in Birds
	Antemortem Clinical Diagnosis
	Necropsy Diagnosis
	Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
	Treatment
	Control
	References
66 The Use of Prosthetic and Orthotic Limbs in Avian Medicine
	Introduction to Prosthetics and Orthotics
	Choosing the Ideal Avian Candidate and Device
	Fabrication and Care of a Prosthetic/Orthotic Device
	Conclusion
	References
67 Avian Spirurids
	Introduction
	Main Diseases Caused by Spirurids in Free-Ranging and Captive Birds
	References
68 Selected Medical Aspects of Bird Reproduction in Ex Situ Conservation
	Reproduction
	Artificial Incubation
	Neonatology
	References
Section 13: Marsupials
69 Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumor Disease
	Signs and Symptoms
	Cause
	Devil Populations
	Moving Forward
	Acknowledgments
	References
70 Medical Aspects of Potoroid Marsupial Conservation Translocations
	Introduction
	Conservation Management
	Welfare Considerations
	Restraint, Anesthesia, and Analgesia
	Transportation
	Telemetry
	Disease Risk Assessment
	Health Evaluation and Disease Surveillance
	Diseases of Captive and Free-Ranging Potoroids
		Diseases of Captive Potoroids
		Diseases of Free-Ranging Potoroids
	Postrelease Monitoring
	References
71 Macropod Pediatric Medicine
	Introduction
	Normal Postnatal Development
	Approach to the Pediatric Macropod Consultation
		History
		Physical Examination and Assessment
		Clinical Pathology
		Pharmacology/Toxicology
		Anesthesia
	Common Presentations
		Infectious Diseases
		Preventative Medicine
	Cross-Fostering
	Euthanasia
	References
Section 14: Small Mammals
72 White-Nose Syndrome
	Background
		North American Perspective
		Global Perspective
	Interdependence Among Pathogen, Host, and Environment
	Clinical Signs
	Diagnosis
	Surveillance
	Disease Mitigation
	References
73 Naked Mole Rat Management and Medicine
	Biology
	Husbandry
	Nutrition
	Reproduction
	Restraint and Anesthesia
	Therapeutics
	Diseases (Infectious and Noninfectious)
	Use in Research
	References
74 Immobilization, Health, and Current Status of Knowledge of Free-Living Capybaras
	Introduction
	The Capybara
	Geographic Distribution
	Habitat
	Biology and State of Conservation
	Capybara as Microorganism Amplifier
	Immobilization
		Physical Immobilization
			Capture Corrals
			Roping
		Chemical Immobilization
	Diseases Reported in Wild Capybaras
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
75 Xenarthra Immobilization and Restraint
	Introduction
	Physical Restraint
		Anteaters
		Armadillos
		Sloths
	Chemical Immobilization and Anesthesia
		Chemical Immobilization and Anesthesia in Anteaters
			Anesthetic Monitoring in Anteaters
			Anesthetic Recovery in Anteaters
		Chemical Immobilization and Anesthesia in Armadillos
			Anesthetic Monitoring in Armadillos
			Anesthetic Recovery in Armadillos
		Chemical Immobilization and Anesthesia in Sloths
			Anesthetic Monitoring in Sloths
			Anesthetic Recovery in Sloth
	Acknowledgments
	References
Section 15: Carnivores
76 Update on Field Anesthesia Protocols for Free-Ranging African Lions
	Introduction
	Capture Technique
	Immobilizing Agents and Antagonists
		Tiletamine Plus Zolazepam (Zoletil, Telazol)
		Cyclohexylamine Plus Alpha2-Agonist
		Butorphanol, Medetomidine, and Midazolam
		Darting From a Helicopter
	References
77 Overview of African Wild Dog Medicine
	Introduction
	Biology and Anatomy
	Management, Husbandry, and Behavior
	Nutrition
	Reproduction and Contraception
	Handling, Restraint, and Anesthesia
	Clinical Pathology
	Diseases
	Preventative Medicine
	Acknowledgments
	References
78 Medicine of Captive Andean Bears
	Biology
	Special Anatomic Features
	Feeding Ecology and Nutrition in Captivity
	Behavior and Related Issues
	Reproduction and Related Medical Issues
	Handling, Restraint, and Chemical Immobilization
	Clinical Techniques and Clinical Pathology
	Diseases of Captive Andean Bears
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
79 Canine Distemper Vaccination in Nondomestic Carnivores
	Recombinant Viral Vector Vaccines
	Modified-Live Virus Vaccines
	Other Vaccines
	Acknowledgment
	References
Section 16: Great Apes
80 Infectious Diseases of Orangutans in their Home Ranges and in Zoos
	Introduction
	Air Sacculitis
	Vector-Borne Diseases
	Hepatitis B
	Tuberculosis
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
81 Medical Aspects of Chimpanzee Rehabilitation and Sanctuary Medicine
	Status of Chimpanzees at Sanctuaries
	Housing and Introductions
	Physical Examinations and Anesthesia in Sanctuaries
	Sanctuary Preventative Healthcare
	Reproductive Management
	Sanctuary Case Reports
		Ocular Herpes
		Demyelinating Disease
		Behavioral Issues
	End of Life and Euthanasia
	References
82 Update on the Great Ape Heart Project
	Introduction
	What We Do
	Great Ape Cardiovascular Disease
		Clinical Signs
		Cardiovascular Changes
		Blood Pressure and Hypertension
			Diet
		Metabolic Syndrome
		Cardiac Health Monitoring
		Performing Cardiac Examinations
		Echocardiograms
			Echocardiograms on Nonanesthetized Great Apes
		Electrocardiogram
		Anesthesia Considerations
		Biomarkers
			B-type Natriuretic Peptide
			C-Reactive Protein
			Troponins
	Treating Cardiovascular Disease in Great Apes
	Postmortem Cardiac Evaluations
	Acknowledgments
	References
83 Great Ape Nutrition
	Wild Diets and Digestive Physiology
		Body Weights
	Recommended Diet Plan
		Water
		Kibble/Pellets
		Browse
		Vegetables
		Seeds, Nuts, Whole Grains, Pulses/Legumes
		Vitamin and Mineral Supplementation
		Animal Products
		Fruit
		Diet Proportions
		Feeding Guidelines—Diet Extrapolations
	Feed Presentation
		Group Feeding
		Enrichment
	Health
		Orangutan Air Sacculitis
		Obesity
			Obesity—Weight Loss Diet
			Obesity—Expending Energy
		Cardiovascular Disease
	References
Section 17: Marine Mammals
84 Marine Mammal Viruses
	Clinical Implications of Viral Biology
	RNA Viruses
		Astroviridae
		Caliciviridae
		Coronaviridae
		Orthomyxoviridae (Influenza Virus)
		Paramyxoviridae
			Morbillivirus
			Respirovirus
	DNA Viruses
		Adenoviridae
		Herpesviridae
		Papillomaviridae
		Poxviridae
	Overview of Viral Diagnostics
	References
85 Mycobacterium pinnipedii
	Etiology and Hosts
		Hosts
	Epidemiology
	Postmortem Diagnosis
	Antemortem Diagnosis
		Clinical Signs
		Imaging
		Direct Examination
		Immunology
			Cellular Immunity Exploration
			Humoral Immunity Exploration
			Interferences Between Cellular and Humoral Tests
	Treatment
	Prevention
		Animals
		Husbandry: Water
		Husbandry: Good Staff Practices
	Acknowledgments
	References
86 Lens Diseases and Anesthetic Considerations for Ophthalmologic Procedures in Pinnipeds
	Introduction
	Incidence of Lens Diseases in Pinnipeds
	Risk Factors/Protective Factors
	Concurrent Eye Problems
	Surgical Considerations
	Anesthesia of Pinniped for Ophthalmologic Procedures— an Overview
	Surgical Candidates: Poor, Good, Great
	Outcomes and Sequelae
	References
Section 18: Ruminants
87 Giraffe Husbandry and Welfare
	Introduction
	Cold Stress
	Nutritional Disorders
	Hoof and Limb Disease
	Complications of Anesthesia
	Social Structure
	Enrichment
	Trauma
	Exhibit Design
	Keeper Experience
	Training
	Acknowledgments
	References
88 Lameness Diagnosis and Management in Zoo Giraffe
	Etiology
	Clinical Signs
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
	Operant Training
	Prevention
	Acknowledgments
	References
89 Mass Mortality Events Affecting Saiga Antelope of Central Asia
	Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
90 Musk Ox Sedation and Anesthesia
	Biology
	Distribution, Habitat, Size, and Weight
	Environmental Considerations
	Restraint/Sedation/Immobilization
		Physical and Chemical Restraint
		Immobilization
			Gas Anesthesia
			Use of Long-Acting Tranquilizers
		Perianesthesia
			Monitoring During Anesthesia
	Acknowledgments
	References
91 Capripoxviruses in Nondomestic Hoofstock
	Etiology
	Epidemiology
		Range and Host-Specificity
		Transmission
	Clinical Signs and Pathology
	Diagnosis
	Treatment, Prevention, and Control
	References
92 Babesiosis in Cervidae
	Introduction
	Life Cycle and Epidemiology
		North America
			Europe
		Factors Involved in Disease Emergence
		Zoonotic Potential
	Clinical Signs
	Pathology
		Clinical Pathology
		Gross Pathology
		Histopathology
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
	Prevention and Control
	References
Section 19: Elephants and Rhinoceroses
93 Management of Dental Disease in Elephants
	Introduction
	Diet
	Management
	Dental Anatomy
		African Elephant Compared With Asian Elephant
		Dental Morphology
			Tusk
			Molar
		Eruption Sequence
	Diagnosing Dental Disease in Elephants
	Diseases/Anomalies Affecting the Molars
		Delayed Shedding
		Supernumerary Molars
		Rotation
		Perforations/Cavities
		Tumors
	Diseases/Anomalies Affecting the Tusks
		Absent Tusks
		Supernumerary Tusks
		Abnormal Structure
		Tusklets
		Dilaceration
		Ivory Pearls
		Abrasion
		Fractures
		Pericoronitis
	Treatment
		Tusks
		Molars
	References
94 Elephant Mycobacteriosis
	Transmission
	Diagnosis
	Treatment
	Occupational and Public Health Considerations
	Conclusions
	References
95 Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus
	Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Impact and Epidemiology
		Asian Elephants
		African Elephants
	Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Preparedness
	Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Vigilance
	Early, Aggressive Treatment for Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus
	Future Directions
	Acknowledgments
	References
96 Elephant Pregnancy and Parturition
	The Normal Pregnancy
	Normal Parturition Process
	Prediction of Parturition
	Abnormal Pregnancy
	Complications During Parturition
		Reasons for Dystocia
			Oversized Fetus
			Malposition/Malformation of Fetus
			Weak Labor/Uterine Inertia
			Difficulties in Passage Through the Birth Canal
	Obstetrics
		Conservative Approaches for Fetal Delivery
			Triggering the Ferguson Reflex
			Calcium
			Oxytocin
			Denaverine
			Estradiol and Prostaglandin E
		Surgical Approaches for Fetal Delivery
			Episiotomy/Vaginal Vestibulotomy and Fetotomy
			Fetal Retention
	Postpartum Complications
	Conclusion
	References
97 Elephant Care in Southeast Asia
	History
	Captivity and Handling
	Target Training Project
	References
98 Updates in African Rhinoceros Field Immobilization and Translocation
	Drugs for Field Immobilization
		White Rhinoceros
		Black Rhinoceros
	Managing an Immobilized Rhinoceros
		Time Use and Priorities
		Body Position and Blood Circulation to the Limbs
		Monitoring Breathing and Response to Hypoxemia and Apnea
			White Rhinoceros
			Black Rhinoceros
		Muscle Tremors
		Monitoring Heart Rate and Blood Pressure
		Hyperthermia
	“Walking” a Rhinoceros
		White Rhinoceros
		Black Rhinoceros
	Reversal of Immobilization
		White Rhinoceros
		Black Rhinoceros
	Transporting Rhinoceros
		Airlifting Rhinoceros
		Transporting by Vehicle
			White Rhinoceros
			Black Rhinoceros
		Transporting Orphan Calves
	Off-loading
		White Rhinoceros
		Black Rhinoceros
	References
99 Update on Rhinoceros Nutrition
	Generalized Recommendations for Feeding Rhinoceros Under Human Care
	White Rhinoceros Nutrition
	Greater One-horned/Indian Rhinoceros Nutrition
	Black Rhinoceros Nutrition
	Nutrition Moving Forward
	Acknowledgments
	References
100 Health of the Forest Rhinoceros of Southeast Asia
	Introduction
	Sumatran Rhinoceros (D. sumatrensis, Fischer 1814)
		Taxonomy
		Infectious and Emerging Disease
			Bacteria, Viruses, and Preventative Medicine
			Endoparasites
			Ticks and Tick-borne Disease
			Tabanids and Trypanosomes
		Noninfectious Disease
			Eye Disorders
			Iron Overload Disorder (Hemachomratosis, Iron Storage Disease)
			Chronic Renal Disease
			Reproductive Pathology and Allee Effect
	Javan Rhinoceros (R. sondaicus, Desmarest 1822)
		Taxonomy
		Javan Rhinoceros Mortality Events and Infectious Disease
		Noninfectious Disease
		Demographic Risks to a Single Population
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Z