Fossil Energy (Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology Series)

Series Preface
Volume Preface
Contents
About the Editor-in-Chief
	Biography
	Education
About the Editor
Contributors
Fossil Energy: Introduction
	Bibliography
Oil and Natural Gas: Global Resources
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Oil and Gas in Conventional Fields
	Tight Gas
	Oil Sands
	Coal Bed Methane
	Oil Shale and Shale Oil
	Shale Gas
	Gas Hydrates
	Estimated Volumes of Remaining Oil and Gas Resources
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
Petroleum and Oil Sand Exploration and Production
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Petroleum Exploration and Production
		Exploration
		Onshore Production
			Primary Recovery Methods
			Secondary Recovery Methods
			Enhanced Oil Recovery Methods
			Hydraulic Fracturing
		Offshore Production
	Oil Sand Exploration and Production
		Oil Mining
		Oil Sand Mining
		Hot-Water Process
		Other Processes
		Non-mining Methods
			Steam-Based Processes
			Combustion Processes
			Other Processes
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Other Information Sources
Oil Shale Processing, Chemistry, and Technology
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	General Characteristics of Oil Shale
		Oil Shale Classification
		Oil Shale Composition
			Mineral Matter
			Organic Matter
				Kerogen
				Kerogen Isolation
				Kerogen Degradative Analysis
				Nondestructive Analysis of Kerogen Structure
				Bitumen or Bitumoid
	Oil Shale Conversion Processes: An Overview
		Direct Combustion
		Low-Temperature Pyrolysis
		High-Temperature Pyrolysis and Gasification
		Other Thermochemical-Based Conversion Technologies
	Shale Oil Production
		General Considerations Regarding Process Temperatures
		Other Processes Taking Place during Retorting
		Thermal Effects during Retorting
		Assay Methods: Determining Potential Oil Yield and Its Relationship to Other Properties
		Heating Rate Effects on Retorting Oil Yields
		Pressure Effects on Retorting Yields
		Effect of Gas Atmosphere on Retorting
		Chemical Aspects of Oil Recovery by Retorting
			Shale Pyrolysis in Comparison to Coal Pyrolysis
			General Observations of Oil Shale Pyrolysis Phenomena
			Observations Regarding Changes in the Macromolecular Structure of Oil Shale Kerogens during Pyrolysis
			Mechanisms and Kinetics of Kerogen Decomposition
			The Nature and Role of Thermobitumen
			Competitive Reaction Processes and Hydrogen
	Technological Aspects of Shale Oil Recovery
		Ex Situ Technologies: An Example and some Further Considerations
		In Situ Technologies: Further Considerations
	Final Considerations and Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Hydraulic Fracturing
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Summary
	What Is Hydraulic Fracturing?
	Why Hydraulic Fracturing Is Important
	Fracture Characterization
	Geomechanics of Hydraulic Fracturing
	Environmental Aspects of Hydraulic Fracturing
	Induced Seismicity
	Assessment of Global Oil and Gas Resources Amenable for Extraction Via Hydraulic Fracturing
	Economics of Hydraulic Fracturing
	Future Work
	Bibliography
Petroleum Refining and Environmental Control and Environmental Effects
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Refinery Processes
		Desalting
		Distillation
		Visbreaking and Coking
		Fluid Catalytic Cracking
		Hydrocracking and Hydrotreating
		Alkylation and Polymerization
		Catalytic Reforming
		Isomerization
		Deasphalting and Dewaxing
			Deasphalting
			Dewaxing
	Environmental Regulations and Pollutants
	Refinery Emissions
		Gaseous Emissions
		Liquid Effluents
		Solid Effluents
	Entry into the Environment
		Storage and Handling of Crude Oil and Crude Oil Products
		Release into the Environment
			Dispersion
			Dissolution
			Emulsification
			Evaporation
			Leaching
			Sedimentation or Adsorption
			Spreading
			Wind
	Toxicity
		Lower-Boiling Constituents
		Higher-Boiling Constituents
		Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons
		Wastewater
	Managing Wastes and Future Directions
		Waste Management
		Waste Treatment and Disposal
		Waste Cleanup
		Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Other Information Sources
Internal Combustion Engines, Developments in
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	The Basics of Internal Combustion Engines
		Basic Operating Cycle
		How an Engine Makes Power
		Thermodynamic Analysis of Internal Combustion Engines
		Spark Ignition Combustion
		Compression Ignition Combustion
		Emission Formation and Exhaust Pollution
	A Case Study: Diesel Engines Versus Gasoline Engines
	Future Directions of Internal Combustion Engines
		Engine Downsizing
		Turbocharging/Supercharging/Boosting
		Advanced Engine Controls
		Variable Geometry Engine Designs
		Variable Valve Timing
		Waste Heat Recovery
		Direct Injection and Spark Ignition Engines
		Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engines
		Advanced Compression Ignition Engines
		Alternative Fuels
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Alaska Gas Hydrate Research and Field Studies
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
		Gas Hydrates
	History of Gas Hydrates
	Introduction
	Global Distribution of Hydrate Resource
	Gas Hydrate Resource Potential
	Review of Global Gas Hydrate Projects
	Japan
	China
	South Korea
	India
	United States
	Canada
	New Zealand
	History of Gas Hydrate Exploration in Alaska
	Alaska Gas Hydrate Production Potential
	The Hot Ice No. 1
	The Mt. Elbert-01
	North Slope Borough Methane Hydrate Project Review
	Gas Hydrate Stability Modeling for BGF Pools
	The East Barrow Field Material Balance Study
	Field Scale Reservoir Simulation Study
	Future Directions
	Conclusions
	Disclaimer
		Acknowledgments
	Bibliography
Gas to Liquid Technologies
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Survey of Specific Gas to Liquids Technologies
		Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
			Plant Considerations
		Methane Reforming in F-T GTL
			Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)
			Compact Reforming
			Autothermal Reforming (ATR)
			Gas-Heated Reforming/Heat Exchange Reforming (GHR/HER)
			Air Blown Autothermal Reforming
			Partial Oxidation (POx) and Catalytic Partial Oxidation (CPOx) Reforming
			Catalytic Membrane Reactors
			Prereforming and Postreforming
		Methane Reforming for Methanol/DME Synthesis
		Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis
			Reaction Pathway
				Formation of C1 Species
				Chain Initiation and Propagation
				Chain Termination
				ASF Distribution
			F-T Catalysts
			Catalyst Beds and Reactors for F-T Synthesis
			Kinetics
			Commercial Activities in Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis
		F-T Product Upgrading
			Hydrocracking Heavy Paraffins (Wax)
			Hydrotreating Light Paraffins
			LTFT Naphtha and Blends
		Methanol
			General Process Description
			Reaction Pathway
			Reactors and Catalysis for Methanol Synthesis
			Activities in Methanol Synthesis
		Dimethylether
			Reaction Pathway
			Commercial Activities in DME Synthesis
				Gas Phase DME Production
				Slurry Phase DME Production
		Methanol to Gasoline and/or Diesel
		Methanol to Chemicals
		Ammonia
			General Process Description
			Reaction Pathway
			Reactors and Catalysis for Ammonia Synthesis
			Commercial Activities in Ammonia Synthesis
		Direct Conversion of Natural Gas to Liquids
			Oxidative Coupling to Light Hydrocarbons
			Selective Oxidation of Natural Gas to Methanol
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
Natural Gas Power
	Glossary
	Defining the Subject
		2016 Update
	Introduction
		2016 Update
	A Brief History of Natural Gas
		A Brief History of Gas Turbine
			2016 Update
	Gas Turbine Power Plants
		Basic Thermodynamics
			2016 Update
		Today´s SOA in CC Power Plants (2010)
			2016 Update
		Cogeneration
		Combustion and Emissions
		Basic Economics
			2016 Update
	Future Directions
		2016 Update
	Bibliography
		Books and Reviews
Coal and Peat: Global Resources and Future Supply
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
	Introduction
	Coal and Peat: Global Resources
		Formation of Coal and Peat
		Occurrences of Coal and Peat
		Coal and Peat Resource and Reserve Classifications
		Coal and Peat Resources in the World
		Coal and Peat Reserves in the World
		Global Coal and Peat Production
		Future Production
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Coal and Other Mining Operations: Role of Sustainability
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
	Introduction
	Mining Life Cycle
	Coal Mining
		Pollution from Coal Mining
			Pollution of Air
			Impacts of Dust
			Pollution of Water
	Restoration Process
	Sustainability and Mining
	Irrigation with Lime-Treated Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)
	Application of Phytotechnology
	Biomining and Bioprocessing
	Bioremediation
	Metal Recovery: Biotic and Abiotic
	Water Quality and Acid Mine Drainage: Pre-mine Predictions and Post-Mine Comparisons
	Recent Sustainable Technologies
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
Coal Preparation
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Assessment of Cleaning Characteristics
	Coal Processing Operations
		Unit Operations for Particle Sizing
		Unit Operations for Coal Cleaning
		Unit Operations for Coal Dewatering
		Waste Disposal and Storage
	Beneficial Impacts of Coal Preparation
		Coal Reserves
		Coal Transportation
		Utility Performance
		Pollution Abatement
	Challenges for Coal Preparation
		Technical Issues
		Environmental Issues
	Future Directions
		Dry Processing
		Conversion Processes
	Bibliography
		Primary Literature
		Books and Reviews
Coal to Liquids Technologies
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Survey of Specific Coal Liquefaction Technologies
		Pyrolysis
		Direct Liquefaction
			Developments at the Wilsonville Facility in the United States
			DCL Developments in Europe
			DCL Developments in Japan
			Recent DCL Developments in China
		Coprocessing
	Indirect Liquefaction
		Gasification
			Moving Bed Gasifiers
			Fluidized Bed Gasifiers
			Entrained Flow Gasifiers
		Fischer-Tropsch
			Performance Variables and Parameters, and Product Distribution
			HTFT
			LTFT
			Water-Gas Shift Reaction
		Downstream Product Upgrading
		Methanol and Dimethylether
		Environmental Factors
			Carbon Dioxide
			Fischer-Tropsch Reaction Product Water
			Utility Water
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
		Reviews
CO2 Reduction and Coal-Based Electricity Generation
	Glossary
	Introduction
	Pulverized Coal in Ultra-Supercritical Steam Cycle (PC/USC)
	Coal Gasification Combined Gas Turbine-Steam Cycle (IGCC)
	CO2 Capture and Compression in PC and IGCC Plant
	PC/Oxy/USC
	CFBC with Oxy/FGR
	Concluding Remarks
	Bibliography
Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers and Pollution Control
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Air Pollutant Emissions from Coal Combustion
	Particulate Emissions
	Sulfur Oxides Formation
	Nitrogen Oxides Formation
	Particulate Matter Control Technologies
	Electrostatic Precipitator
	Fabric Filter Baghouse
	SO2 Emissions Control Technologies
	Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization
	Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization
	NOx Emissions Control Technologies
	Low-Nox Burners
	Overfire Air
	Reburning
	Selective Noncatalytic Reduction
	Selective Catalytic Reduction
	Future Directions
	Bibliography
Mitigation of Airborne Pollutants in Coal Combustion: Use of Simulation
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
		Coal Power and Pollutant Emissions
		Pollutant Formation in Coal Boilers
	Simulation Methodologies
		Correlations
		Chemistry Models
			Chemical Equilibrium
			Chemical Kinetics
		Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
			Coal Combustion Modeling
			Usage Guidelines
	Modeling Pollutant Formation and Control
		Particulate Matter (PM)
			Slagging
			Fouling
			ESP
			Fabric Filters
		Carbon Monoxide (CO)
		Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
			Combustion Zone
			Post-combustion Zone
		Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
			Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization
			Dry Flue Gas Desulfurization
			Dry Sorbent Injection
		Sulfur Trioxide (SO3)
		Mercury (Hg)
	Future Work
	Bibliography
CO2 Capture and Sequestration
	Glossary
	Definition of Subject
	Introduction
	Carbon Capture
		Post-combustion Capture
		Pre-combustion Capture
		Oxy-combustion
		Direct Air Capture (DAC)
		Geological Sequestration
		Large-Scale Commercial Deployment
			Petra Nova Parish Holdings, LLC
			Archer Daniels Midland Company
			Boundary Dam
			Worldwide Large-Scale CO2 Sequestration Projects
		Science and Technology Status
		Monitoring and Verification (M&V)
		Deployment Challenges
		Hazards Assessment and Risk Management
		Water Issues
	Bibliography
Policy Instruments for Mitigating Carbon Dioxide Emissions
	Glossary
	Definition of the Subject
	Introduction
	Evaluative Criteria
	Environmental Goal Setting
	Regulation
		Basic Considerations and Workings
		Assessment
	Taxes and Subsidies
		Basic Considerations and Workings
		Assessment
	Tradable Property Rights (``Cap and Trade´´)
		Basic Considerations and Workings
		Assessment
	Operational Examples
		Regulation
		British Columbia´s Carbon Tax
		Western Climate Initiative Cap and Trade Program
	Future Directions for Research
	Conclusion
	Bibliography
Index