Forensic Chemistry of Substance Misuse. A Guide to Drug Control

Cover
Forensic Chemistry of Substance Misuse
Dedication
Preface to the 2nd Edition
Preface
Acknowledgements
Coda: Beginnings
Glossary
Abbreviations
Contents
Chapter 1 - Drug Misuse
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Drug Misuse in England and Wales
		1.2.1 Household Surveys of Drug Misuse
		1.2.2 Drug-­associated Deaths
		1.2.3 Seizures by Law Enforcement Agencies
	References
Chapter 2 - International Drugs Control
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961
	2.3 United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971
	2.4 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988
	2.5 The Role of the European Union
		2.5.1 ‘Joint Action’: The Period 1997 to 2005
		2.5.2 The EU Council Decision of 2005
		2.5.3 The Period since 2018
			2.5.3.1 Formal Notification
			2.5.3.2 Monitoring and Responses
			2.5.3.3 Initial Report
	2.6 Legislative Developments in Other Countries
	References
Chapter 3 - Primary UK Drugs Legislation up to 1971
	3.1 Drug Control in the UK before 1971
	3.2 The Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
	3.3 Offences and Penalties under the MDAct
		3.3.1 Cultivation of Cannabis
		3.3.2 Production of a Controlled Drug
	3.4 The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs
	3.5 Reviews of the MDAct
		3.5.1 Review by the ACMD (1979)
		3.5.2 The Independent Enquiry into the MDAct (2000)
		3.5.3 Home Affairs Select Committee (2001–2)
		3.5.4 Select Committee on Science and Technology (2006)
		3.5.5 Royal Society of Arts Report (2007)
		3.5.6 Demos Report ‘Taking Drugs Seriously’ (2011)
		3.5.7 Home Affairs Select Committee (2012)
		3.5.8 All-­Party Parliamentary Group for Drug Policy Reform (2013)
		3.5.9 Royal Society for Public Health (2016)
		3.5.10 Royal Society of Arts (2017)
		3.5.11 House of Commons Health and Social Care Committee: Drugs Policy (2019)
		3.5.12 Independent Review of Drugs by Dame Carol Black (2021)
		3.5.13 Problem Drugs Bill: A Private Members' Bill Tabled by Tommy Sheppard MP (2021)
	3.6 Substances Removed and/or Reinstated
	3.7 Cannabis: Classification and Reclassification
	3.8 The Classification of MDMA
	3.9 The Precautionary Principle
	3.10 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 4 - The Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Regulations Relevant to Forensic Science
		4.2.1 Exceptions for Drugs in Schedules 4 and 5 and Poppy Straw
		4.2.2 Exceptions for Drugs in Schedule 1
		4.2.3 Exceptions for Gamma-­butyrolactone and 1,4-Butanediol
	4.3 The Impact of the MD Regulations on Scientific Research
	References
Chapter 5 - UK Drugs Legislation since 1971
	5.1 Drugs Act 2005
	5.2 Temporary Class Drug Orders
	5.3 Importation Controls
	5.4 The Psychoactive Substances Act 2016
		5.4.1 Alkyl Nitrites
		5.4.2 Nitrous Oxide
		5.4.3 Reviews of the Psychoactive Substances Act
	5.5 Other Drug-­related Legislation in the UK
		5.5.1 Road Traffic Act 1972
		5.5.2 The Customs and Excise Management Act 1979
		5.5.3 The Drug Trafficking Act 1994
		5.5.4 The Crime and Disorder Act 1998
		5.5.5 The Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001
		5.5.6 The Criminal Justice Act 2003
		5.5.7 The Criminal Justice (International Cooperation) Act 1990; Controlled Drugs (Drug Precursors) (Intra-­community Trade) Regu...
		5.5.8 Serious Crime Act 2007
		5.5.9 Crime and Courts Act 2013
	References
Chapter 6 - Nomenclature
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 British Approved Names and International Non-­proprietary Names
	6.3 Phenyl-­substituted Alkanes
		6.3.1 Amphetamine
		6.3.2 Methylamphetamine
		6.3.3 N-­Hydroxy MDA
	6.4 Code Names
	6.5 Anabolic Steroids
	6.6 Synonyms and Common Terms
	6.7 The Meaning of ‘3,4-­Methylenedioxy’
	6.8 Dialkyl Derivatives
	6.9 The Meaning of ‘Structurally Derived from’
	6.10 Redundancy
	References
Chapter 7 - Esters, Ethers, Salts, Homologues, Stereoisomers and Isotopes
	7.1 Esters and/or Ethers: Introduction
	7.2 Esters
	7.3 Ethers
	7.4 Salts
	7.5 Homologues
	7.6 Stereoisomers
	7.7 Isotopes
	References
Chapter 8 - Structure-­specific Generic Legislation
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Generic Control in the UK before 1970
	8.3 Generic Control in the UK after 1970
	8.4 Anabolic/Androgenic Steroids
	8.5 Barbiturates
	8.6 Benzofurans and Related Structures
	8.7 N-­Benzylphenethylamines
	8.8 Cannabinols
	8.9 Cathinone Derivatives
	8.10 Ecgonine Derivatives
	8.11 Fentanyls
	8.12 Lysergide and Derivatives of Lysergamide
	8.13 Pentavalent Nitrogen Derivatives of Morphine
	8.14 Pethidine and Prodine Derivatives
	8.15 Ring-­substituted Phenethylamines
	8.16 Phenyl-­ and Benzylpiperazines
	8.17 Phenyl and Other Arylcyclohexylamines
	8.18 Pipradrol Derivatives
	8.19 Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists
	8.20 Tryptamines
	References
Chapter 9 - Generic Control in Other Jurisdictions
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Generic Definitions in New Zealand
		9.2.1 Amphetamine Derivatives
		9.2.2 Methaqualone Derivatives
		9.2.3 Dimethyltryptamine Derivatives
	9.3 Generic Control in Other Countries
		9.3.1 Israel
		9.3.2 Switzerland
		9.3.3 Germany
		9.3.4 New South Wales, Australia
		9.3.5 China
	References
Chapter 10 - Generic Control: A Critique
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 General Concerns with Generic Control
		10.2.1 Effect on the Pharmaceutical Industry
		10.2.2 Capture of Inactive Substances
		10.2.3 Difficulty in Comprehension
		10.2.4 Obsolescence
		10.2.5 Reference Materials
		10.2.6 Other Criticisms of Generic Control
	10.3 Specific Issues with Certain Generic Definitions
		10.3.1 Cathinones
		10.3.2 Benzofurans and Related Compounds
		10.3.3 The Phenidate Group
		10.3.4 Anabolic Steroids
		10.3.5 Ring-­substituted Phenethylamines
		10.3.6 Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists (SCRAs)
		10.3.7 Cannabinol
	10.4 The Future of Generic Legislation
	References
Chapter 11 - Analogue Legislation
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Analogue Control in the United States
	11.3 Analogue Control in Other Countries
		11.3.1 Canada
		11.3.2 South Africa
		11.3.3 New Zealand
	11.4 Problems with Analogue Control
	References
Chapter 12 - What Is a Derivative
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 General Definitions of ‘Derivative’
	12.3 The Term ‘Derivative’ in Legal Practice
	12.4 Cocaine Precursors
	12.5 2-­Bromo-­LSD and Other Ergolines
	12.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 13 - New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): An Old Problem
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Morphine Derivatives in the Period before 1932
	13.3 Ring-­substituted Phenethylamines from the 1960s
	13.4 Fentanyl and Pethidine Derivatives in the 1980s
	13.5 The Period after 1990
	13.6 Chemical Aspects of New Psychoactive Substances
		13.6.1 Fluorinated Compounds
		13.6.2 Analytical Problems with NPS
		13.6.3 Structure–Activity Aspects of the Pharmacology and Toxicology of NPS
		13.6.4 Anticipation of NPS
	References
Chapter 14 - Substances Not Listed in the International Conventions
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Phenethylamines
		14.2.1 N-­Substituted 2-­Phenethylamines
		14.2.2 Phenylalkylamines Other than 2-­Phenylethylamines
		14.2.3 Arylalkylamines
			14.2.3.1 Thiophenylalkylamines
			14.2.3.2 Naphthylalkylamines
			14.2.3.3 Indanylalkylamines
			14.2.3.4 Aminoalkyl-­1-­benzofurans
			14.2.3.5 Aminoalkyl-­2,3-­dihydro-­1-­benzofurans
			14.2.3.6 Aminoalkyl-­1H-­indoles
			14.2.3.7 Aminoalkylindolines
			14.2.3.8 2-­Aminoindans and 2-­Aminoindenes
			14.2.3.9 Aminoalkyltetralins
		14.2.4 Conformationally-­restricted Phenethylamines
		14.2.5 Ephedrine and Derivatives
	14.3 Methylhexaneamine
	14.4 Cognitive and Other Enhancers
	14.5 Carisoprodol
	14.6 Benzydamine
	14.7 Analogues of Methaqualone
	14.8 ‘Isocathinones’
	14.9 1-­Ethynylcyclohexanol
	14.10 Camfetamine
	14.11 Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators (SARMs)
	14.12 Bioisosteres of Tryptamine
	14.13 Phenyloxazoline Derivatives
	14.14 Amfonelic Acid
	14.15 Substances Banned by WADA
	14.16 Alkyl Nitrites
	14.17 Substances Reviewed by the WHO/ECDD in 2020
	14.18 Salvinorin
	14.19 4-­Benzylpiperidine
	14.20 Bromantane
	14.21 Cyclohexylbenzamide Opioids
	14.22 RH-­34
	14.23 Benzylbenzimidazole Opioids
	14.24 Other Atypical Opioids
	14.25 Hyoscine
	14.26 Other Psychoactive Plant Products
	References
Chapter 15 - Amphetamine, Methylamphetamine and MDMA
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Amphetamine
		15.2.1 Amphetamine: Pharmacology
		15.2.2 Amphetamine: Synthesis
	15.3 Methylamphetamine
		15.3.1 Introduction
		15.3.2 Methylamphetamine: Pharmacology
		15.3.3 Methylamphetamine: Synthesis
	15.4 MDMA (3,4-­Methylenedioxymethylamphetamine)
		15.4.1 Introduction
		15.4.2 MDMA: Pharmacology
		15.4.3 MDMA: Synthesis
	References
Chapter 16 - Benzodiazepines
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 ‘New’ Benzodiazepines
	References
Chapter 17 - Cannabis and Phytocannabinoids
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Definitions of Cannabis and Cannabis Resin
	17.3 Cannabis Seeds
	17.4 Phytocannabinoids
	17.5 Control of Cannabinols
	17.6 Hash Oil
	17.7 ‘High Potency’ Cannabis
	17.8 Medicinal Cannabis
		17.8.1 The Period before 2018
		17.8.2 Recent Developments
	17.9 Miscellaneous Issues with Cannabis
	References
Chapter 18 - Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists (SCRAs)
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Nomenclature of SCRAs
	18.3 Control Status
		18.3.1 Introduction
		18.3.2 Generic Control of SCRAs in the UK
		18.3.3 Continuing Problems with the Generic Definition of SCRAs
		18.3.4 Non-­controlled SCRAs
		18.3.5 Barriers to Research with SCRAs
		18.3.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 19 - Cocaine, Crack and Synthetic Analogues
	19.1 Cocaine
	19.2 Crack Cocaine
	19.3 Coca Leaf and Coca Tea
	19.4 Analogues of Cocaine
	References
Chapter 20 - Tryptamines and Lysergamides
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 TiHKAL Substances
	20.3 Generic Control of Tryptamines in the UK
	20.4 Lysergide and Derivatives of Lysergamide
		20.4.1 Lysergide
		20.4.2 Lysergamide
	References
Chapter 21 - Gamma-­hydroxybutyrate and Related Substances
	21.1 GHB
	21.2 Other Substances Based on n-­Butyric Acid
	References
Chapter 22 - Morphine, Heroin and Other Opiates
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Heroin
	22.3 Miscellaneous Opiates and Opioids
		22.3.1 Codeine, Dihydrocodeine and Pholcodine
		22.3.2 Oxycodone
		22.3.3 Nalbuphine
		22.3.4 Dextromethorphan
		22.3.5 Glaucine
		22.3.6 Desomorphine
		22.3.7 Butorphanol
		22.3.8 Apomorphine
		22.3.9 Naloxone
		22.3.10 Buprenorphine
	References
Chapter 23 - Purity, Potency, Drug Content and Prices
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 The Measured Purities of Powdered Drugs
	23.3 The Potency of Cannabis
	23.4 Statistical Analysis of Purity Data
	23.5 Drug Content
	23.6 Wrap Sizes
	23.7 Adulterants in Powdered Drugs
	23.8 Drug Prices
	References
Chapter 24 - Measuring Drug Harm
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 ACMD: Developing a Scale of Harm (2000–2007)
	24.3 The Netherlands Study (2010)
	24.4 A Multi-­criteria Decision Analysis of Drug Harms in the UK (2010)
	24.5 The UK Survey by Morgan et al. (2009)
	24.6 A Scale of Harm Produced by Drug Users (2011)
	24.7 The International Survey by Morgan et al. (2013)
	24.8 New Zealand Drug Harm Index
	24.9 Index Measures of Lethal Toxicity
		24.9.1 Fatal Poisonings and Prescriptions
		24.9.2 Fatal Poisonings and Other Measures of Availability
		24.9.3 The Safety Ratio
		24.9.4 ‘Sole’ and ‘All Mentions’ on Death Certificates
	References
Chapter 25 - Miscellaneous Issues
	25.1 Diagnostic Kits
	25.2 Low Dosage Preparations
		25.2.1 Low Dosage Preparations Containing Cocaine
		25.2.2 Low Dosage Preparations Containing Dihydrocodeine and Other Opiates
		25.2.3 Low Dosage Preparations Containing Morphine
	25.3 Cutting Agents and Adulterants
	25.4 Preparations Designed for Administration by Injection
	25.5 Supply of Meat Products
	25.6 Medicinal Products
		25.6.1 Medicinal Products and the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016
		25.6.2 Psychoactive Substances ‘Not for Human Consumption’
		25.6.3 1-­Benzylpiperazine as a Medicinal Product
		25.6.4 Historical Issues with Benzodiazepines
		25.6.5 Nitrous Oxide
		25.6.6 Medicinal Products and the EU Early Warning System
	References
Chapter 26 - Natural Products
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Opium
	26.3 Poppy Straw and Concentrate of Poppy Straw
	26.4 Fungi Containing Psilocin or an Ester of Psilocin
	26.5 Peyote and Other Cacti
	26.6 ‘Morning Glory’ Seeds
	26.7 Plants Containing Tryptamines
	26.8 Non-­controlled Natural Products
	References
Chapter 27 - Drug Precursors and Intermediates
	27.1 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988
	27.2 Precursor Controls in the EU and UK
	27.3 Precursor Chemicals and the US Controlled Substances Act
	27.4 Production of Drugs from Listed and Unlisted Precursors
	27.5 Drug ‘Intermediates’ Listed in the UN 1961 Convention or the Misuse of Drugs Act
	References
Chapter 28 - Other Harmful Substances
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Poisons
	28.3 Chemical Weapons and Their Precursors
	28.4 Volatile Solvents and Gases
	28.5 Other Dangerous Substances
	28.6 Other Controls
	References
Chapter 29 - Social Drugs
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 Alcohol
	29.3 Tobacco
	29.4 Caffeine
	29.5 Khat
		29.5.1 Introduction
		29.5.2 Control Status of Khat
	29.6 Areca Nut and Betel Leaf
	References
Bibliography
Appendix 1 EMCDDA Risk Assessments
Appendix 2 Modification and Amendment Orders to the Misuse of Drugs Act (1973–2021)
Appendix 3 Substances Added Specifically to the Misuse of Drugs Act (1973–2021)
Appendix 4 Significant Drug Case Judgments
Appendix 5 Selected Reports of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (2002–2021)
Appendix 6 Anabolic/Androgenic Steroids Controlled under the Misuse of Drugs Act
Appendix 7 The 34 PiHKAL Substances and 4-MTAAdded to the Misuse of Drugs Act as Class A Drugs in 2001
Appendix 8 An Unusual Case of MDMA Manufacture
Appendix 9 Presumptive Tests for Drugs
Appendix 10 Useful Websites
Appendix 11 Fentanyl Derivatives Reported to EMCDDA
Subject Index