Food Oxidants and Antioxidants: Chemical, Biological, and Functional Properties

Food Oxidants and Antioxidants: Chemical, Biological, and Functional Properties......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Editor......Page 10
Contributors......Page 12
Abbreviations......Page 16
1.1 Introduction......Page 20
1.2 Free Radicals and Reactive Oxygen Species......Page 21
1.3.2 Autoxidation......Page 22
1.3.4 Enzymatic Peroxidation......Page 23
1.3.6 Secondary Oxidation Products......Page 24
1.3.7 Oxysterols......Page 25
1.4 Protein Oxidation......Page 26
1.5 Consequences of Lipid and Protein Oxidation in Vivo......Page 27
1.6 Factors Affecting Lipid and Protein Oxidation in Food......Page 28
1.7 What Is Oxidized First: Lipids or Proteins?......Page 29
1.8 Carbohydrate Oxidation......Page 30
1.9 Consequences of Food Component Oxidation......Page 31
1.10 Concluding Remarks......Page 35
References......Page 36
2.1 Introduction......Page 40
2.2.1 Redox-Active Metals......Page 41
2.2.2 Hemoproteins......Page 47
2.2.3 Photosensitizers......Page 51
2.3 Enzymatic Oxidants......Page 53
2.3.1 Lipoxygenases......Page 54
2.3.2 Myeloperoxidases and Lactoperoxidases......Page 57
2.3.3 Polyphenol Oxidases......Page 58
References......Page 59
3.1 Introduction......Page 66
3.2 Pathways and Products of Food Protein Oxidation......Page 68
3.3 Pathways and Products of Food Lipid Oxidation......Page 73
3.4 Oxidation Pathways and Products of Food Carbohydrates......Page 76
3.4.3 Oxidation Chemistry of Sugars and Alcohols......Page 77
3.5 Oxidation Pathways and Products of Antioxidants in Foods......Page 78
3.5.2 Tocopherols......Page 79
3.5.3 Ascorbic Acid......Page 80
3.5.4 Carotenoids......Page 81
3.6 Pathways and Products of Oxygen-Mediated Cross-Reactions in Foods......Page 82
3.7.1 Analysis of Food Protein Oxidation Products......Page 83
3.7.2 Analysis of Food Lipid Oxidation Products......Page 85
3.7.3 Analysis of Food Carbohydrate Oxidation Products......Page 86
3.7.4 Analysis of Oxidation Products of Antioxidants in Foods......Page 87
3.8 Proposed Index of Food Oxidation Potential......Page 88
References......Page 91
4 Mechanisms of Oxidation in Food Lipids......Page 98
4.2.1 Mechanisms and Products Formed......Page 99
4.2.1.1 Primary Oxidation Products: Hydroperoxides......Page 100
4.2.1.2 Secondary Oxidation Products......Page 102
4.2.2 Oxidation of Conjugated Fatty Acids......Page 108
4.2.3 Oxidation at High Temperature: Thermoxidation......Page 112
4.2.4 Main Factors Involved in Lipid Oxidation......Page 115
4.3 Enzymatic Oxidation......Page 116
4.4 Photoxidation......Page 117
4.5.1 Food Structure and Lipid Distribution......Page 118
4.5.3 Water Activity......Page 120
4.6.1 Food Emulsions......Page 121
4.6.3 Fish Products......Page 123
4.6.4 Processed Foods......Page 124
References......Page 126
5.1 Introduction......Page 134
5.2.1 Metals......Page 136
5.2.2 Heme Proteins......Page 138
5.2.3 Light......Page 139
5.2.4 Indirect Oxidation......Page 140
5.3 Impact of Protein Oxidation on Food Quality: Processing and Storage......Page 142
5.4.1 Antioxidants: Feeding Strategies......Page 144
5.4.2 Antioxidants: Processing and Storage Strategies......Page 146
5.4.3.1 Phenolic Compounds......Page 147
5.4.3.2 Carotenoids......Page 148
5.5 Conclusions......Page 149
References......Page 150
6.1 Introduction......Page 156
6.2.1 Endogenous Factors......Page 158
6.2.2 Preslaughter Factors......Page 159
6.2.3.1 Addition of Sodium Chloride......Page 160
6.2.3.2 Mechanically Separated Meat and Restructured Meat......Page 161
6.2.3.4 Irradiation......Page 163
6.2.3.5 High Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 164
6.2.3.6 Packaging......Page 166
6.2.4 Culinary Cooking Practices......Page 168
6.3 Factors Promoting Oxidation of Meat Proteins......Page 169
References......Page 170
7 Effects of Oxidation on Sensory Characteristics of Food Components during Processing and Storage......Page 178
7.2.1 Taste......Page 179
7.3 Oxidation......Page 180
7.3.1 Lipid Oxidation......Page 181
7.4 Meat......Page 186
7.4.1 Meat Flavor......Page 187
7.4.2 Meat Color......Page 192
7.5.1 Oil Flavor......Page 193
7.5.2 Oil Processing for Stability......Page 194
7.5.3 Modification for Stability......Page 195
7.6 Dairy Products......Page 196
7.7.1 Vegetable Color and Flavor......Page 197
7.7.2 Processes to Stabilize Vegetable Color and Flavor......Page 198
7.8.1 Fruit Color and Flavor......Page 201
7.9 Grain Products......Page 202
7.10 Final Remarks......Page 204
References......Page 205
8 Effects of Oxidation on the Nutritive and Health-Promoting Value of Food Components......Page 216
8.1 Introduction......Page 217
8.2.1 Carbohydrate Oxidation......Page 221
8.3.1 Acyl Lipid Oxidation......Page 222
8.3.2 Effect of Acyl Lipid Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects......Page 224
8.4.2 Effect of Amino Acid and Protein Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects......Page 225
8.5.1.1 Tocopherol and Tocotrienol Oxidation......Page 227
8.5.2.1 Carotenoid Oxidation......Page 229
8.5.3.1 Sterol Oxidation......Page 230
8.6 Effect of Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects of Flavonoids and Other Phenolic Compounds......Page 232
8.6.1 Phenolic Compound Oxidation......Page 233
8.6.2 Effect of Phenolic Compound Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects......Page 234
8.7.2 Effect of Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects of Thiamin......Page 235
8.7.4 Effect of Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects of Vitamin B6......Page 236
8.7.5 Effect of Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects of Folate......Page 238
8.7.6 Effect of Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects of Biotin......Page 239
8.7.7 Effect of Oxidation on Nutritive and Health-Promoting Effects of Vitamin B12......Page 240
8.9 Concluding Remarks and Future Research Needs......Page 241
References......Page 242
9.1 Introduction......Page 254
9.2 Classification of Natural Antioxidants......Page 259
9.3.1 General Aspects......Page 264
9.3.2 Marine Origin Sources......Page 270
9.3.3 Animal Origin Sources......Page 271
9.3.4 Plant Origin Sources......Page 273
9.4 Natural PS and OS Antioxidants......Page 275
9.5.1 General Aspects......Page 285
9.5.2 Fruits and Vegetables......Page 288
9.5.3 Cereals, Seeds, and Nuts......Page 290
9.5.4 Oil Production By-Products......Page 292
9.5.5 Other By-Products and Waste......Page 293
9.6.1 General Aspects......Page 294
9.6.2 Berry Fruits......Page 297
9.6.3 Fruits......Page 299
9.6.4 Vegetables......Page 301
9.6.5 Cereals......Page 305
9.6.6 Other Crops and Products......Page 306
References......Page 307
10.1 Introduction......Page 322
10.2 Processing by Application of Heat......Page 323
10.2.1 Thermal Processes for Food Preservation......Page 325
10.2.2 Thermal Processes for Food Transformation......Page 328
10.2.3 Microwave Heating......Page 330
10.3.1 Enzymatic Treatments......Page 331
10.3.2 Fermentation......Page 332
10.3.3 Irradiation......Page 333
10.3.4 High Pressures......Page 336
10.3.5 Others (Separation, Pulsed Electric Fields)......Page 337
10.4 Conclusions......Page 338
References......Page 339
11.1 Introduction......Page 344
11.2.1 Reactive Oxygen Species......Page 345
11.2.2 Reactive Nitrogen Species......Page 346
11.3.1 Superoxide Dismutase......Page 347
11.3.2 Catalase......Page 348
11.4.1 Ascorbic Acid......Page 349
11.4.2 Vitamin E......Page 351
11.4.3 Glutathione......Page 352
11.4.5 Carotenoids......Page 354
11.4.6 Flavonoids......Page 356
11.5 Conclusions......Page 357
References......Page 358
12.1 Introduction......Page 362
12.2.1 Spectrophotometric Methods......Page 363
12.2.2 Chromatographic Methods......Page 365
12.2.3 Aldehyde/Carboxylic Acid Assay......Page 367
12.3.1 Antioxidant Activity of Beverages: Coffee, Tea, and Beer......Page 369
12.3.2 Antioxidant Activity of Maillard Reaction Products......Page 370
References......Page 373
13.1 Introduction......Page 378
13.2 Antioxidants of Apples......Page 379
13.3 DPPH• Radical Scavenging: Spectrophotometric Assay......Page 381
13.4.1 ESR Studies of Apple Juice......Page 384
13.4.2 ESR Studies of Apple Purée......Page 386
13.5 Cuprac Assay for Apple Juice......Page 388
13.6 Parameters Characterizing the Antioxidant and Free Radical-Scavenging Activity......Page 389
References......Page 391
14.1 Introduction......Page 394
14.2 Antioxidant and Prooxidant Activity of Plant Phenolics......Page 395
14.2.1 Metabolism and Bioavailability of Polyphenols......Page 396
14.2.2.1 Hydroxybenzoic and Cinnamic Acids......Page 399
14.2.2.2 Flavonoids......Page 401
14.2.2.3 Tannins......Page 408
14.2.2.5 Phenolics of Herbs and Spices......Page 409
14.2.3 Prooxidant Action of Flavonoids......Page 410
14.3 Antioxidant Activity of Betalains......Page 415
14.4.1 Vitamin C......Page 418
14.4.2 Vitamin E......Page 419
14.4.3 Carotenoids......Page 421
14.4.4 Folates......Page 424
14.5 Other Food Antioxidants: Thiol Antioxidants......Page 428
14.6 Summary......Page 429
References......Page 431
15 Bioavailability and Antioxidant Activity of Curcuminoids and Carotenoids in Humans......Page 452
15.1.1 Oxidative Stress and Disease......Page 453
15.2 Curcuminoids......Page 454
15.2.1 Biotransformation of Curcuminoids......Page 455
15.2.3 Bioavailability of Curcuminoids: Absorption, Tissue Distribution, and Excretion......Page 458
15.2.4 Strategies for Enhanced Bioavailability of Curcumin in Animals and Humans......Page 462
15.2.5	Antioxidant Activities of Curcuminoids in Humans......Page 463
15.3 Carotenoids......Page 464
15.3.2 Bioavailability of Carotenoids: Absorption, Tissue Distribution, and Excretion......Page 467
15.3.3 Carotenoid Concentrations in Humans......Page 470
15.3.4.1 Physical Quenching of Singlet Oxygen......Page 473
15.3.5 Provitamin A Activity of Carotenoids......Page 474
Acknowledgments......Page 475
References......Page 476
16.1 Introduction......Page 484
16.2.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction......Page 485
16.2.3 Subcritical Water Extraction......Page 486
16.2.4 Instrumentation for Compressed Fluids Extraction......Page 487
16.2.5 Other Green Extraction Methods: Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction......Page 488
16.3 Case Study 1: Rosemary Antioxidants......Page 489
16.4 Case Study 2: Microalgal Antioxidants and Carotenoids......Page 495
16.4.1 Dunaliella salina......Page 496
16.4.2 Haematococcus pluvialis......Page 498
16.5 Conclusions......Page 500
References......Page 501
17 Functional Antioxidant Foods......Page 508
17.1 Introduction......Page 509
17.2.1 Phenolic Acids......Page 510
17.2.3 Carotenoids......Page 511
17.2.4 Tannins......Page 512
17.2.5 Terpenes......Page 513
17.2.7 Fiber......Page 514
17.3.1 Pomegranate......Page 515
17.3.3 Berries......Page 516
17.3.4 Date Palm......Page 517
17.3.6 Citrus Fruits......Page 518
17.3.7 Exotic Fruits......Page 519
17.4 Vegetables......Page 520
17.4.2 Garlic......Page 521
17.4.3 Onion......Page 522
17.5.1 Olive Oil......Page 523
17.5.2 Argan Oil......Page 524
17.6 Cereals......Page 525
17.7 Legumes......Page 526
17.8 Nuts and Seeds......Page 527
17.9 Spices and Herbs......Page 528
17.10 Beverages......Page 529
17.10.2 Coffee......Page 530
17.10.3 Mate......Page 531
17.11.1 Beer......Page 532
17.11.2 Wine......Page 533
References......Page 534
18 Concluding Remarks......Page 548
References......Page 552
Index......Page 556