Food irradiation research and technology

 Content: List of Contributors xix  Preface xxv   Chapter 1 Introduction: Food Irradiation Moving On 1     Joseph Borsa   Introduction 2  Two Tracks Going Forward 3  The Food Safety Track 3  The Disinfestation Track 5  Bumps Still Remain on the Road Ahead 5  Summary 7  References 7   Chapter 2 Advances in Electron Beam and X-ray Technologies for Food Irradiation 9    Marshall R. Cleland   Introduction 10  Basic Irradiation Concepts 10  Definition and Units of Absorbed Dose 10  Absorbed Dose versus Emitted Radiation Power 11  Temperature Rise versus Dose 12  Electron Beam Facilities 13  Absorbed Dose versus Beam Current 14  Electron Beam Technologies 14  X-ray Facilities 21  Conclusion 24  References 25   Chapter 3 Gamma Ray Technology for Food Irradiation 29     Kevin O'Hara   Introduction 29  Overview of Co-60 Gamma Technology 30  Basic Irradiation Concepts 32  Gamma Ray Facilities 32  Irradiator Categories 34  Criteria for Irradiator Design and Selection 35  Pallet Irradiator 38  Tote Box Irradiator 40  Independent Dose Delivery Carrier and Stationary Irradiations 41  Gray* Star GenesisTM Underwater Irradiator 42  Gamma Ray Facilities for Radiation Research 43  Comparison of Irradiation Technologies 45  References 46   Chapter 4 Regulation of Irradiated Foods and Packaging 47    George H. Pauli   Introduction 48  References 52  Notes 52   Chapter 5 Toxicological Safety of Irradiated Foods 53    Christopher H. Sommers, Henry Delincee, J. Scott Smith, and Eric Marchioni   Introduction 54  Food Irradiation 54  Benzene, Formaldehyde, and Amines 56  Formation and Levels of 2-ACBs in Foods 57  Toxicological Safety of 2-ACBs 63  2-ACBs and Tumor Promotion 66  Diet and Tumor Promotion 67  Conclusions 67  References 68   Chapter 6 Radiation Chemistry of Food Components 75    Xuetong Fan   Basic Radiation Effects 76  Radiolysis of Water 76  Radiation Chemistry of Major Food Components 77  Radiation Chemistry of Lipids 77  Radiolysis of Proteins 80  Radiolysis of Carbohydrates 83  Reduction of Undesirable Compounds by Irradiation 88  Reduction of Furan and Acrylamide 88  Reduction of Mycotoxins 89  Antinutritional Compounds 92  Acknowledgments 93  References 93   Chapter 7 Dosimetry for Food Processing and Research Applications 99    Kishor Mehta and Kevin O'Hara   Importance of Dosimetry 99  Introduction 100  Some Fundamentals of Dosimetry 101  Absorbed Dose 101  Dosimetry System 102  Measurement Management System 103  Selection and Characterization of a Dosimetry System 103  Types of Dosimetry Systems 103  The Selection of an Appropriate Dosimetry System 104  Dosimetry System Characterization 106  The Use of a Dosimetry System 107  Dosimetry in Food Research 108  Dosimetry at a Commercial Facility 109  General 109  Process Validation 110  Operational Qualification (OQ) 110  Performance Qualification (PQ) 114  Routine Process Monitoring and Control 117  References 120   Chapter 8 Detection of Irradiated Foods 123    Eric Marchioni   Introduction 124  Free Radicals and Electronic Excited States 126  ESR Spectroscopy 126  Luminescence 129  Stable Radiolytic Products 131  Radiolytic Products from Proteins 131  Volatile Compounds 131  Radiolytic Products from Carbohydrates 132  Radiolytic Products from Nucleic Acids 132  Radiolytic Products from Lipids 134  Modification of Macroscopic Physico-Biological Parameters of the Food 137  Gas Evolution 138  Cellular Wall Modifications 138  Bacteriological Modifications 138  Germination Inhibition 139  Irradiated Ingredients and Low-Dose Irradiated Plants 139  Conclusion 140  References 140   Chapter 9 Irradiation of Packaging Materials in Contact with Food: An Update 147    Vanee Komolprasert   Introduction 148  Current Authorizations of Packaging Materials for Irradiation of Prepackaged Food 149  Radiation-Induced Chemical Changes in Packaging Materials 157  Role of AOs 158  Evaluating Packaging Materials Irradiated in the Presence of Oxygen 159  Irradiation Effects 160  Analysis for RPs 161  Dietary Exposure to RPs 162  Safety Assessment of RPs 164  Approaches to Testing 165  Conclusions 167  Acknowledgment 168  References 168   Chapter 10 Consumer Acceptance and Marketing of Irradiated Foods 173    Ronald F. Eustice and Christine M. Bruhn   Introduction 174  What Is Food Irradiation? 174  Why Is Food Irradiated? 174  Marketing of Irradiation Foods 176  Commercial Acceptance of Irradiation Foods 177  Resistance to "New" Technology 178  Risks versus Benefits 179  World's Safest Food Supply, But Not Safe Enough 179  Irradiation: A Powerful and Effective Tool to Improve Food Safety 181  Education: The Key to Consumer Acceptance 182  Effect of Unfavorable Information 185  Can Unfavorable Information Be Counteracted? 186  Effects of Gender, Income, and Children 188  Barriers to Acceptance 188  The "Minnesota Model" of Consumer Acceptance 189  A Defining Moment in Food Safety 191  Is It Farm to Fork, or Turf to Tort? 192  Conclusion 192  References 193   Chapter 11 Irradiation of Ready-To-Eat Meat Products 197    Christopher H. Sommers and William J. Mackay   Introduction 198  Materials and Methods 198  RTE Meats 198  Processing of Beef Bologna 199  Bacterial Isolates 199  Preparation of Inoculum 200  Inoculation of RTE Meats 200  Gamma Irradiation 200  Enumeration of Bacteria 201  Storage Study 201  D10 Values 201  Statistical Analysis 202  Results and Discussion 202  Acknowledgment 205  References 205   Chapter 12 Mechanisms and Prevention of Quality Changes in Meat by Irradiation 209    Doug U. Ahn and Eun Joo Lee   Introduction 209  Food Irradiation 210  Microcidal Effect 211  Quality Changes in Meat by Irradiation 213  Lipid Oxidation 213  Sources and Mechanisms of Off-Odor Production 214  Color Changes in Meat by Irradiation 216  Control of Off-Odor Production and Color Changes 220  Additives 220  Packaging 221  Packaging and Additive Combinations 221  Future Research 222  References 222   Chapter 13 Phytosanitary Irradiation for Fresh Horticultural Commodities: Research and Regulations 227    Peter A. Follett and Robert L. Griffin   Introduction 228  Developing Irradiation Quarantine Treatments 228  Insect Radiotolerance 228  Methodology 231  Varietal Testing 234  Probit 9 Efficacy and Alternatives 234  Generic Radiation Treatments 236  Regulatory Aspects of Irradiation 240  USDA Regulations 242  Regional and International Harmonization 244  Trade 245  References 249   Chapter 14 Antimicrobial Application of Low-Dose Irradiation of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce 255    Brendan A. Niemira   Introduction 256  Produce Microbiology and Irradiation Treatment 257  Internalization of Bacteria 258  Biofilm-Associated Pathogens 260  Postirradiation Recovery and Regrowth 261  Treatment Parameters for Irradiation of Produce 262  Influence of Plant Variety 264  Combination with Sanitizers 264  Irradiation Plus Mild Thermal Treatment 265  Summary 266  Acknowledgments 266  References 266   Chapter 15 Irradiation of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables: Quality and Shelf Life 271    Xuetong Fan   Introduction 272  Ethylene and Respiration 273  Appearance 274  Texture 276  Flavor/Taste 278  Nutrients 281  Vitamin C 281  Other Nutrients 282  Combination of Irradiation with Other Postharvest Techniques 284  Chemical Sanitizers 284  Hot-Water Treatment 284  Calcium and Calcium Ascorbate 285  MAP 286  Shelf-Life Extension 287  References 288   Chapter 16 Irradiation of Seeds and Sprouts 295    Kathleen T. Rajkowski and Md. Latiful Bari   Introduction 295  Outbreaks Associated with Sprouts 296  Potential Source of Contamination 301  Pathogens of Concern for Sprouts 302  Salmonella 302  Enterohemorrhagic E. coli 302  L. monocytogenes 302  B. cereus 303  Yersinia enterocolitica 303  Shigella 303  Klebsiella 303  Pathogen Decontamination Overview 304  Seed and Sprout Evaluation after Treatment 305  Radiation Dose to Reduce Microbial Pathogens on Seeds 305  Combination Treatments 308  Radiation Dose to Reduce Microbial Pathogens on Sprouts 308  Other 309  Conclusions 310  References 310   Chapter 17 Irradiation of Nuts 317    Anuradha Prakash   Introduction 317  Farming and Harvesting 318  Insect Disinfestation 318  Microbial Contamination 319  Contamination with Pathogens 320  Irradiation Treatment of Nuts 323  Insect Disinfestation 323  Molds and Aflatoxins 324  Pathogen Inactivation 325  Chemical and Sensory: Irradiation Can Catalyze or Induce Lipid Peroxidation, and Lipid and/or Protein Radiolysis 325  Nonoxidative Radiolytic Reactions 329  Effect of Irradiation on Nut Allergenicity 329  Advantages of Using Irradiation to Treat Nuts 330  Research Needs 330  References 331   Chapter 18 Irradiation of Seafood with a Particular Emphasis on Listeria monocytogenes in Ready-To-Eat Products 337    Denise M. Foley   Introduction 338  Listeria monocytogenes Is a Significant Contaminant of Seafood 338  Stress Adaptation of the Organism 339  Irradiation Is an Effective Postprocessing Treatment for Fish Products 340  Physical, Chemical, and Sensory Changes of Irradiated Seafood 344  Competing Microflora 345  Comments Regarding Irradiation and the Risk for Botulism 346  Conclusion 346  References 346   Chapter 19 Ionizing Radiation of Eggs 351    Ignacio Alvarez, Brendan A. Niemira, Xuetong Fan, and Christopher H. Sommers   Introduction 352  Ionizing Radiation of Shell Eggs 353  Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation on Shell Eggs 353  Internal Quality of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs 356  Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs 358  Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs 358  Ionizing Radiation of Refrigerated Liquid Egg 359  Ionizing Radiation of LWE 359  Ionizing Radiation of Liquid Egg White 361  Ionizing Radiation of Liquid Egg Yolk 362  Ionizing Radiation of Dried Egg 363  Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation in Dried Egg 363  Quality of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg 363  Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg 363  Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg 364  Ionizing Radiation of Frozen Egg 365  Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation in Frozen Egg 365  Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated Frozen Egg 365  Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Frozen Egg 365  Strategies to Increase the Quality of Irradiated Egg Products 366  Areas for Future Research 368  Conclusion 369  Acknowledgments 370  References 370   Chapter 20 Irradiated Ground Beef for the National School Lunch Program 373    Xuetong Fan   Introduction 374  Foodborne Illnesses in School 374  Regulatory Allowance and Specifications of Irradiated Foods for Schools 376  Sensory Properties of Irradiated Ground Beef 378  Conclusion 382  Acknowledgments 383  References 383   Chapter 21 Potential Applications of Ionizing Radiation 385    Ju-Woon Lee, Jae-Hun Kim, Yohan Yoon, Cheorun Jo, and Myung-Woo Byun   Introduction 386  Reduction of Food Allergies by Ionizing Radiation 386  Volatile N-nitrosamine and Residual Nitrite Reduction 387  Biogenic Amines Reduction 390  Reduction of Phytic Acid and Increase in Antioxidant Activity 391  Chlorophyll b Breakdown 393  Color Improvement of Plant Extracts without Change of Biological Functions 393  Control of Enterobacter sakazakii in Infant Formula 394  Use of Irradiation to Control Food-Related Bacteria in Meat Products 394  Application of Irradiation for Sea Food Safety 396  Use of Irradiation on Fresh Produces and Dairy Products 396  Application of Irradiation for the Development of Traditional Fermented Foods 397  Use of Boiled Extracts from Cooking 398  Improvement of Nutritional Conditions and Food Quality by Irradiation 399  Conclusion 399  Acknowledgments 399  References 400   Chapter 22 A Future Uncertain: Food Irradiation From a Legal Perspective 407    Denis W. Stearns   Introduction 408  Liability for the Manufacture of a Defective Food Product 409  The Origins of Strict Liability in Tainted Food Cases 409  The Modern Rule of Strict Liability 410  Defining Products and Defects 410  Proving the Existence of a Defect in Food 411  Strict Liability Creates Few If Any Legal Incentives in Favor of Food Irradiation 412  A Possible Existing Legal Duty to Use Irradiated Food: The Challenge of Highly Susceptible Populations 414  Negligence: Failing to Avoid a Known and Avoidable Risk 414  The Eggshell Plaintiff: Irradiation, Liability, and Susceptible Populations 416  The Prospect of Punitive Damages as a Stronger Incentive 417  The Possibility of Liability Arising from Irradiated Foods 418  Conclusion 419  Notes 420   Chapter 23 Technical Challenges and Research Directions in Electronic Food Pasteurization 425    Suresh D. Pillai, Les Braby, and Joe Maxim   Introduction 426  Target Pathogens 427  Enteric Viruses 427  Protozoan Pathogens 428  Bacterial Pathogens 428  Radiation Physics and Chemistry 428  Chemical Environment 428  Standardized Protocols 429  Electronic Pasteurization in Conjunction with Microbial Risk Assessment 430  Low Dose Electronic Pasteurization and Dosimetry 431  Product Packaging 431  Electronic Pasteurization of Complex-Shaped Packages 432  Acknowledgments 433  References 433  Index 435