Food Chemistry: The Role of Additives, Preservatives and Adulteration

Cover
Half-Title Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
1 Food Chemistry: Role of Additives, Preservatives, and Adulteration
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Categories of Food Colors
	1.3 Natural Colors Are Best Over Artificial Colors
	1.4 Classification of Food Colorants
		1.4.1 Natural Colorants
		1.4.2 Synthetic Colorants
			1.4.2.1 Water Soluble Synthetic Colors
			1.4.2.2 Fat Soluble Synthetic Colorants
			1.4.2.3 Lake Colorants
	1.5 Classification of Food Additives
		1.5.1 Why Food Colors Are Preferred
		1.5.2 E-Numbering
	1.6 Food Spoilage and Preservation
		1.6.1 Causes of Spoilage
		1.6.2 Principle of Food Preservation
	1.7 Preservatives
		1.7.1 Factors Affecting Preservative Efficiency
			1.7.1.1 Interaction With Formulation Components
			1.7.1.2 Properties of Preservatives
			1.7.1.3 Effect of Containers
			1.7.1.4 Types of Micro-Organisms
			1.7.1.5 Influence of pH
		1.7.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Preservation
		1.7.3 Classification of Chemical Preservatives
		1.7.4 Types of Chemical Preservatives
		1.7.5 Natural Chemical Preservatives
		1.7.6 Methods of Food Preservation
	1.8 Antioxidants
	1.9 Oils and Spices
	1.10 Introduction to Hurdle Technology
		1.10.1 Advantages of Food Additives and Preservatives
		1.10.2 Disadvantages of Food Additives and Preservatives
		1.10.3 Effects of Food Additives and Food Preservatives
		1.10.4 Safety of Food Additives and Preservatives
	1.11 Adulteration
		1.11.1 History of Food Adulteration
		1.11.2 Types of Food Adulteration
			1.11.2.1 Intentional Adulteration
			1.11.2.2 Incidental Adulteration
			1.11.2.3 Metallic Adulteration
		1.11.3 A Food Is Considered Adulterated if It Has the Following Factors
		1.11.4 Effects of Adulterated Food on Human Health
		1.11.5 Reasons for Food Adulteration
		1.11.6 Methods of Food Adulteration
		1.11.7 Trends of Food Adulteration in Developing Countries
	1.12 Food Safety and Standards Act
		1.12.1 Few Steps to Avoid Adulteration
		1.12.2 Detection Methods of Adulteration
		1.12.3 Technique to Check Food Adulteration
	1.13 Conclusion
	References
2 Additives and Preservatives Used in Food Processing and Preservation, and Their Health Implication
	Abbreviations
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Merits and Demerits of Food Additives and Preservatives
		2.2.1 Merits of Food Additives and Preservatives
		2.2.2 Demerits of Food Additives and Preservatives
	2.3 Types of Food Additives and Preservatives
		2.3.1 Preservatives
		2.3.2 Nutritional Additives
		2.3.3 Flavoring Agent
		2.3.4 Coloring Agent
		2.3.5 Texturizing Agent
		2.3.6 Miscellaneous Additives
			2.3.6.1 Acidity Regulator
			2.3.6.2 Anti-Caking Agent
			2.3.6.3 Antifoaming Agent
			2.3.6.4 Flour Treatment Agents
			2.3.6.5 Fat Replacers
			2.3.6.6 Sweeteners
			2.3.6.7 Leavening Agent
			2.3.6.8 Firming Agent
			2.3.6.9 Glazing Agent
			2.3.6.10 Humectant
			2.3.6.11 Sequestering Agent
			2.3.6.12 Gelling Agent
			2.3.6.13 Propellants
			2.3.6.14 Foaming Agent
			2.3.6.15 Seasoning
			2.3.6.16 Curing Agents
			2.3.6.17 Probiotics
			2.3.6.18 Other Food Additives
			2.3.6.19 Indirect Food Additives
	2.4 Health Effect of Food Additives and Preservatives
	2.5 Conclusion
	References
3 Role of Packaging in Food Processing
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 State-of-the Art
	3.3 Raw Materials Used in Food Packaging
		3.3.1 Metals
		3.3.2 Glass
		3.3.3 Plastics
		3.3.4 Paper and Cardboard
	3.4 Packaging Footprints on Quality, Shelf Life, and Safety of Food
	3.5 Prolegomenon on Active and Smart Packaging Systems
		3.5.1 Active Packaging
		3.5.2 Intelligent Packaging System
	3.6 Aseptic Packaging in Food Processing
	3.7 The Paradigm in Strategies for Improvement of Food Packaging
		3.7.1 Bequest of Packaging Into the Cycle of Food Chain Sustainability
		3.7.2 Selection of Materials With the Objective of Recyclability
		3.7.3 Escalating Protective Role of Packaging
		3.7.4 How Biodegradable Polymers can Mitigate the Plight of Packaging in Food Processing
	3.8 Integration of Nanotechnology to Ameliorate Food Packaging
	3.9 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
	3.10 Deciphering the Challenges for Sustainable Food Packaging
	3.11 Conclusion and the Way Forward
	Acknowledgement
	References
4 Laws Impacting Chemicals Added to Food
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Functions of Food Additives
		4.2.1 Sustain or Enhance the Shelf Life and Freshness of a Product
		4.2.2 Sustain or Enhance the Nutritional Quality of a Product
		4.2.3 Improve the Aesthetic Appeal and Sensory Attributes of a Product
	4.3 Classification of Food Additives
		4.3.1 Classification Based on Functionality
			4.3.1.1 Flavoring Agents
			4.3.1.2 Enzyme Preparations
			4.3.1.3 Other Additives
	4.4 Classification Based on Primary and Secondary Technological Roles—Direct and Indirect Additives
	4.5 Evaluating the Health Risk of Food Additives
	4.6 International Regulations for the Efficacy of Food Additives
	4.7 International Laws
		4.7.1 US Food and Drug Administration
	4.8 Indian Regulations—Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), Additives Regulations (Regulation 3.1)
	4.9 Safety Assessment: Redbook’s Principles of Safety Evaluation
	4.10 Levels of Concern for Direct Food Additives
	4.11 Threshold Regulation Exemption for Indirect Food Additives
	4.12 Estimated Daily Intakes
	4.13 Human Data and Clinical Studies
	4.14 GRAS Substances
	4.15 European Union Legislation
	4.16 Categorization of Food Additives
		4.16.1 Additives Can Be Used for the Following Purposes
	4.17 Safety Assessment of Food Additives
	4.18 Safety Evaluation Process and Authorization
	4.19 Use of Food Additives in Food Products
		4.19.1 Traditional Foods
		4.19.2 Restricted Provisions
	4.20 Labeling Regulations and Guidelines
	4.21 Conclusion
	References
5 Detection of Food Adulterants in Different Foodstuff
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Types of Adulteration
	5.3 Impact of Adulteration on Health
	5.4 Approaches for Adulterant Authentication in Food Materials
	5.5 Physical Authentication Techniques
	5.6 Application of Biochemical and Analytical Methods in Adulterant Authentication
		5.6.1 Adulterant Authentication Through HPLC
		5.6.2 Adulterant Authentication Through GCMS
		5.6.3 Adulterant Authentication Through Spectroscopic Method
		5.6.4 Adulterant Authentication Through Ambient Mass Spectroscopy Techniques
		5.6.5 Adulterant Authentication Through Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Technique
	5.7 Adulterant Identification by Molecular Techniques
		5.7.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction–Based Techniques for Adulterant Identification
		5.7.2 Application of Real-Time PCR in Adulterant Authentication
		5.7.3 Isothermal Amplification Methods for Adulterant Identification
		5.7.4 Sequencing and Hybridization-Based Methods in Adulterant Identification
	5.8 Limitation in Use of Molecular-Based Methods for Adulterant Authentication
	5.9 Conclusion
	References
6 Trends of Food Adulteration in Developing Countries and Its Remedies
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Food Fraud in Developing Countries
		6.2.1 Impact of Adulteration
	6.3 Classification of Food Adulteration
		6.3.1 Intentional Adulteration
	6.4 Common Food Adulterants
	6.5 Adulteration Remedy Strategies
		6.5.1 Government and Regulatory Agency Initiative
		6.5.2 Loopholes in Existing Method of Eliminating Adulteration
		6.5.3 Process and Product Verification
		6.5.4 Higher Levels of Transparency/Traceability in Supply Chain
		6.5.5 Use of Novel Technology
		6.5.6 Training
		6.5.7 Awareness
	6.6 Conclusion
	References
7 Food Adulteration and Its Impacts on Our Health/Balanced Nutrition
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Types of Adulteration
		7.2.1 Intentional Adulteration
		7.2.2 Incidental Adulteration
		7.2.3 Other Types of Adulteration
			7.2.3.1 Natural Contamination
			7.2.3.2 Metallic Contamination
			7.2.3.3 Microbial Contamination
			7.2.3.4 Adulteration in Organic Foods
			7.2.3.5 Adulteration During Irradiation of Foods
			7.2.3.6 Genetically Modified Foods
	7.3 Adulteration in Foods
		7.3.1 Global Food Environment
	7.4 Effects of Food Adulteration
		7.4.1 Health Effects
		7.4.2 Balanced Nutrition
	7.5 Measures to Mitigate Food Adulteration
		7.5.1 Producer’s or Manufacturer’s End
		7.5.2 Consumer’s End
		7.5.3 Government and Regulatory Agencies
	References
8 Natural Food Toxins as Anti-Nutritional Factors in Plants and Their Reduction Strategies
	Abbreviations
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Anti-Nutritional Factor
		8.2.1 Tannins
			8.2.1.1 Types
			8.2.1.2 Adverse Effects
		8.2.2 Saponins
			8.2.2.1 Saponins
			8.2.2.2 Adverse Effects
		8.2.3 Lectins and Hemagglutinin
			8.2.3.1 Adverse Effects
		8.2.4 Alkaloids
			8.2.4.1 Adverse Health Effects
		8.2.5 Oxalates
			8.2.5.1 Adverse Effects
		8.2.6 Cyanogenic Glycosides
			8.2.6.1 Adverse Effects
		8.2.7 Goitrogens
			8.2.7.1 Adverse Effects
	8.3 Methods to Reduce Levels of Anti-Nutritional Factors in Foods
		8.3.1 Soaking
		8.3.2 Fermentation
		8.3.3 Germination
		8.3.4 Milling
		8.3.5 Extrusion
		8.3.6 Heating-Autoclaving (Wet Heating) and Roasting (Dry Heating)
		8.3.7 Gamma Radiation
		8.3.8 Genomic Technology
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
9 Feeding the Future—Challenges and Limitations
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Early Life Nutrition and Healthy Future
		9.2.1 Choice of Food and “Nutrition Transition”
	9.3 Challenges and Opportunities in Developing the Future Food Systems
	9.4 Sustainable Diet for the Future
	9.5 Research Trends and Green Food Technologies
		9.5.1 Green Technologies in Food Processing
		9.5.2 Nanotechnology in Food Processing and Food Safety
		9.5.3 CRISPR-Based Technologies
		9.5.4 Future Directives
			9.5.4.1 3D Food Printing and Mass Customization of Diet
	9.6 Regulations and Trade
	9.7 Conclusion
	References
10 Alternate Food Preservation Technology
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Non-Thermal Preservation Technique
		10.2.1 Packaging Technology
			10.2.1.1 Challenges and Future Scope of MAP Processing
		10.2.2 Ozone (O
		) Treatment
			10.2.2.1 Properties of O
			10.2.2.2 Principle of O
			Generation
			10.2.2.3 Challenges and Future Scope of O
			Processing
		10.2.3 High Hydrostatic Pressure Treatment
			10.2.3.1 Principles of HPP Treatment
			10.2.3.2 HPP Time
			10.2.3.3 Challenges and Future Scope of HPP Treatment
		10.2.4 Ultrasound Treatment
			10.2.4.1 Principle of Ultrasound Treatment
			10.2.4.2 Challenges and Future Scope of Ultrasound Treatment
		10.2.5 Pulsed Electric Field Treatment
			10.2.5.1 Principle of PEF Treatment
			10.2.5.2 Challenges and Future Scope of PEF Treatment
		10.2.6 Cold Plasma Treatment
			10.2.6.1 Generation of CP Treatment
			10.2.6.2 Challenges and Future Scope of CP
		10.2.7 Oscillating Magnetic Field
			10.2.7.1 Challenges and Future Scope of OMF
		10.2.8 Membrane Filtration Process
			10.2.8.1 Principle of the Membrane Filtration Process
			10.2.8.2 Microfiltration
			10.2.8.3 Ultrafiltration
			10.2.8.4 Nanofiltration
			10.2.8.5 Reverse Osmosis
			10.2.8.6 Challenges and Future Scope of the Membrane Filtration Process
	10.3 Novel-Thermal Preservation Technique
		10.3.1 Ohmic Heating Treatment
			10.3.1.1 Application of OH Treatment
			10.3.1.2 Challenges and Future Scope of OH Treatment
		10.3.2 Microwave Heating
			10.3.2.1 Principle of MW Heating
			10.3.2.2 Applications of MW Heating
			10.3.2.3 Challenges and Future Scope of MW Heating
		10.3.3 Infrared Heating (IRH)
			10.3.3.1 Application of IRH
			10.3.3.2 Challenges and Future Scope of IRH
		10.3.4 Radio Frequency Heating
			10.3.4.1 Principle of RF Heating
			10.3.4.2 Factor Influencing of RF Heating
			10.3.4.3 Challenges and Future Scope of RF Heating
	10.4 Other Alternate Preservation Techniques
		10.4.1 Freezing
			10.4.1.1 Challenges and Future Scope of Freezing
		10.4.2 Dehydration
		10.4.3 Frying
		10.4.4 Chilling
		10.4.5 Extrusion
		10.4.6 Three-Dimensional (3-D) Printing
			10.4.6.1 Principle of 3-D Printing
			10.4.6.2 Factor Influencing 3-D Printing
		10.4.7 Blanching
	10.5 Hurdle Technology for Preservation of Food
	10.6 Irradiation Process for Preservation of Food
		10.6.1 Electron Beam
		10.6.2 X-Radiation (X-Ray)
		10.6.3 Gamma Rays
	10.7 Food Additives for the Preservation of Food
		10.7.1 Natural Additives
		10.7.2 Synthetic Additives
		10.7.3 Challenges and Future Scope of Additives
	10.8 Conclusion
	References
11 Green Solvents for Food Processing Applications
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Green Solvents
		11.2.1 Water as Green Solvent
		11.2.2 Subcritical Water Extraction
		11.2.3 Supercritical Fluids as Green Solvent
		11.2.4 Gas Expanded Liquids as Green Solvent
		11.2.5 Ionic Liquids as Green Solvent
			11.2.5.1 Classification of Ionic Liquids
		11.2.6 Solvents Derived From Biomass as Green Solvent
		11.2.7 Deep Eutectic Solvents as Green Solvents
	11.3 Synthesis of NADES
		11.3.1 NADES for Extraction of Phenolic Compounds
		11.3.2 NADES for Extraction of Flavonoids
		11.3.3 NADES for Extraction of Other Polar Compounds
			11.3.3.1 Ferulic Acid Extraction From Ligusticum Chuanxiong Hort and NADES
		11.3.4 NADES for Extraction of Food Samples
			11.3.4.1 Extraction of Vanillin With NADES
			11.3.4.2 Extraction of Anthocyanins With NADES
			11.3.4.3 Extraction of Phenolic Compounds With NADES
		11.3.5 General Considerations Using NADES as Extraction Solvents
	11.4 Conclusion and Future Trends
	References
12 Technological Advancement in Food Additives and Preservatives
	Abbreviations
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Food Additives and Preservatives
		12.2.1 Classes of Food Additives
		12.2.2 Significance in Food Processing and Preservation
		12.2.3 Mechanism of Action of Food Preservatives
	12.3 Regulatory Aspects of Food Additives and Preservatives
		12.3.1 Generally Recognized as Safe
		12.3.2 FSSAI Regulations on Permissible Limits of Food Additives
	12.4 Health Concerns of Conventional Food Additives
	12.5 Technological Advancements in Food Additives and Preservatives
		12.5.1 Novel Food Additives
			12.5.1.1 Essential Oils/Phytochemicals
			12.5.1.2 Metallic Nanoparticles as Antimicrobial (Green Route)
	12.6 Novel Technological Approaches for Enhanced Functionality
		12.6.1 Nanoencapsulation
			12.6.1.1 Fundamentals and Techniques
			12.6.1.2 Types of Encapsulating Material
	12.7 Methods for Food Additives Determination
		12.7.1 Analytical Methods
			12.7.1.1 Spectroscopy Techniques
			12.7.1.2 Chromatographic Techniques
			12.7.1.3 Electroanalytical Techniques
	12.8 Future Prospects
	12.9 Conclusion
	References
13 Sensors for Non-Destructive Quality Evaluation of Food
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Different Types of Non-Destructive Methods
		13.2.1 Mechanical Method
			13.2.1.1 Mechanical Thumb Method
			13.2.1.2 Sinclair IQTM–Firmness Tester (SIQ-FT)
			13.2.1.3 Laser Air-Puff
		13.2.2 Chemical Method
			13.2.2.1 Electronic Nose
		13.2.3 Electromagnetic Method
			13.2.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
			13.2.3.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		13.2.4 Optical Method
			13.2.4.1 NIR Spectroscopy
			13.2.4.2 Image Analysis Techniques
			13.2.4.3 Time-Resolved Reflectance Spectrometry
		13.2.5 Dynamic Method
			13.2.5.1 X-Rays
			13.2.5.2 Computed Tomography
			13.2.5.3 Ultrasonic
			13.2.5.4 Acoustic Techniques
		13.2.6 Sensor Fusion
	13.3 Non-Destructive Quality Testing in Various Food Commodities
		13.3.1 Staple Foods
			13.3.1.1 Sensory Aspect
			13.3.1.2 Adulteration Aspects
			13.3.1.3 Chemical Aspects
		13.3.2 Fruits
			13.3.2.1 Fruit Quality Inspection Using Electronic Nose
			13.3.2.2 Fruit Quality Inspection Using UV-VIS-NIR Spectroscopy
			13.3.2.3 Fruit Quality Inspection Using Ultrasound Sensing Technique
			13.3.2.4 Fruit Quality Inspection Using Machine Vision Sensing Technique
			13.3.2.5 Fruit Quality Inspection Using Acoustic Impulse Technique
		13.3.3 Vegetables
			13.3.3.1 Spectroscopic Techniques
			13.3.3.2 Sound Waves Techniques
			13.3.3.3 Imaging Analysis Techniques
	13.4 Conclusion
	References
Index
EULA