Food Carbohydrates: Chemistry, Physical Properties, and Applications

FOOD CARBOHYDRATES Chemistry, Physical Properties, and Applications......Page 1
Preface......Page 4
Editor......Page 6
Contributors......Page 7
Contents......Page 8
Understanding the Chemistry of Food Carbohydrates......Page 9
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.1 Introduction......Page 10
1.2.1 Basic Structure of Monosaccharides......Page 11
1.2.2 Ring Forms of Sugars......Page 16
1.2.3.1 Mutarotation......Page 19
1.2.3.2 Enolization and Isomerization......Page 21
1.2.4.1 Conformation of the Pyranose Ring......Page 24
1.2.4.3 Determination of Favored Pyranoid Conformation......Page 25
1.2.5 Occurrence of Monosaccharides......Page 29
1.3.2 Disaccharides......Page 30
1.3.3 Conformation of Disaccharides......Page 35
1.3.4 Oligosaccharides......Page 36
1.3.5 Cyclic Oligosaccharides......Page 41
1.4.1 Oxidation and Reduction Reactions......Page 44
1.4.2 Deoxy and Amino Sugars......Page 47
1.4.3 Sugar Esters and Ethers......Page 49
1.4.5.1 Maillard Reaction......Page 52
1.4.5.2 Caramelization......Page 55
1.5.1 General Structures and Classifications......Page 59
1.5.2 Factors Affecting Extractability and Solubility of Polysaccharides......Page 62
1.5.3 Extraction of Polysaccharides......Page 64
1.5.4 Purification and Fractionation of Polysaccharides......Page 69
Suggested Reading......Page 71
References......Page 72
Understanding Carbohydrate Analysis......Page 74
2.1 Introduction......Page 75
2.2.1 Sample Preparation......Page 76
2.2.2.1 Reaction Theory......Page 77
2.2.2.2 Operating Procedure......Page 78
2.2.3.1 Reaction Theory......Page 79
2.2.4 Analysis of Uronic Acids......Page 80
2.3 Monosaccharide Analysis......Page 81
2.3.1 Acid Hydrolysis......Page 82
2.3.2 Gas- Liquid Chromatography ( GC)......Page 83
2.3.2.1 Derivatization......Page 84
2.3.2.2 Quantification......Page 85
2.3.3 High Performance Liquid Chromatography ( HPLC)......Page 86
2.3.3.1 High Performance Anion Exchange Chromatography ( HPAEC)......Page 87
2.3.3.2 Quantification......Page 88
2.3.4 Enzymatic Analysis......Page 89
2.3.4.1 Analysis of Glucose......Page 90
2.3.4.2 Analysis of Galactose and Lactose......Page 91
2.3.4.3 Analysis of Fructose, Glucose, and Sucrose......Page 93
Glucans......Page 94
2.3.4.5 Analysis of Galactomannans......Page 95
2.4 Oligosaccharide Analysis......Page 96
2.4.2 Size Exclusion Chromatography ( SEC)......Page 97
2.4.4 Enzymatic Analysis......Page 99
2.5.1 Definition of Dietary Fiber......Page 101
2.5.2.2 Enzymatic/ Gravimetric Methods......Page 103
References......Page 106
Structural Analysis of Polysaccharides......Page 112
3.1 Introduction: Strategy for Polysaccharide Structural Analysis......Page 113
3.2.1 Methylation Analysis......Page 115
3.2.1.1 Methylation Reaction......Page 116
3.2.1.2 GC- MS Analysis of Partially Methylated Alditol Acetates ( PMAA)......Page 119
3.2.2 Reductive Cleavage Analysis......Page 122
3.2.3 Peroxidation......Page 125
3.3.1.1 Controlled Acid Hydrolysis......Page 128
3.3.1.3 Acetolysis......Page 130
3.3.2.1 Smith Degradation......Page 131
3.3.2.2 Procedures for Smith Degradation......Page 132
3.3.2.3 Oxidation with Chromium Trioxide......Page 133
3.3.3 Specific Enzyme Hydrolysis......Page 135
3.4 Mass Spectroscopy and Sequencing of Oligosaccharides......Page 137
3.4.1.2 FAB- MS Fragmentation Pathways......Page 139
3.4.1.4 Structural Analysis of Oligosaccharides by FAB- MS*......Page 141
3.4.2 MALDI- MS......Page 147
3.4.2.1 Principles and Procedures......Page 149
3.4.2.2 Fragmentation Pathways......Page 150
3.4.2.3 Examples of Applications......Page 151
3.5 NMR Spectroscopy......Page 153
3.5.1 1H NMR Spectrum......Page 154
3.5.2 13C NMR Spectrum......Page 155
of Polysaccharides......Page 156
3.5.3.2 Sequence Determination by NOESY and HMBC......Page 161
3.5.3.3 Summary of NMR Spectroscopy......Page 162
References......Page 164
Understanding the Physical Properties of Food Polysaccharides......Page 168
4.2.1 Molecular Weight Distribution and Averages......Page 169
4.2.2 Determination of Molecular Weight......Page 172
4.2.2.1 Membrane Osmometry......Page 173
4.2.2.2 Static Light Scattering......Page 175
4.2.2.3 Ultracentrifugation ( Sedimentation)......Page 177
4.2.2.4 Viscometry......Page 178
4.2.2.5 Size Exclusion Chromatography......Page 179
4.3.1.1 Solubility......Page 180
4.3.1.2 Factors Affecting Solubility and Dissolution Rate......Page 181
4.3.2 Concentration Regime......Page 182
4.3.3.1 Definitions of Viscosity Terms......Page 183
4.3.3.2 Relationship between Intrinsic Viscosity and Molecular Weight......Page 185
4.3.3.3 Determination of Intrinsic Viscosity......Page 186
4.3.4.1 Shear Rate Dependence of Viscosity......Page 189
4.3.4.2 Time Dependence of Viscosity......Page 192
4.3.4.3 Concentration and Molecular Weight Effects......Page 193
4.3.4.4 Effects of Temperature......Page 194
4.3.4.5 Effects of pH and Ionic Strength......Page 195
4.3.4.6 Viscoelastic Properties......Page 196
4.3.4.7 Frequency Temperature/ Concentration Superposition......Page 198
4.4.1.1 Gelation Mechanism......Page 201
4.4.1.2 General Properties......Page 203
4.4.1.3 Factors Affecting Gelation......Page 204
4.4.2.1 Rheological Methods......Page 208
4.4.2.2 Thermal Analysis......Page 212
4.5.1 Surface Tension and Food Emulsions......Page 215
4.5.2 Nonadsorption Polysaccharides in Emulsions......Page 217
4.5.3 Polysaccharides with Surface Activities......Page 218
References......Page 221
Understanding the Conformation of Polysaccharides......Page 226
5.1.2 Concepts and Terminologies......Page 227
5.1.3.1 Conformation of Homopolysaccharide Chains......Page 229
5.1.3.2 Conformation of Complex Polysaccharide Chains......Page 232
5.1.4.1 The Concept of Random Coil......Page 235
5.1.4.2 Conformation of Polysaccharides in Unperturbed Conditions4,5......Page 238
5.1.4.3 Effect of Solvent Quality, Concentration, and Temperature......Page 242
5.2.1.2 Basics of Fiber Diffraction Analysis of Polysaccharides......Page 246
5.2.1.3 Examples of Fiber Diffraction Structure of Polysaccharides......Page 248
5.2.2.1 Introduction......Page 250
5.2.2.2 Basics of Scattering Techniques......Page 251
5.2.2.3 Application to the Polysaccharide Structure Study......Page 255
in the Conformation Analysis of Carbohydrates......Page 258
5.2.3.1 NMR Relaxations: Basic Concepts and Principles......Page 259
NMR Relaxations......Page 261
5.2.4 Summary of Conformation Analysis......Page 265
References......Page 266
Polysaccharide Gums: Structures, Functional Properties, and Applications......Page 269
6.1 Introduction......Page 270
6.2.1.1 Sources and Structures......Page 271
6.2.1.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 273
6.2.2.1 Sources and Structures......Page 274
6.2.2.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 278
6.2.3.1 Sources and Structures......Page 281
6.2.3.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 285
6.2.4 Exudate Gums......Page 287
6.2.4.1 Sources and Structures......Page 288
6.2.4.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 290
6.2.5.2 Flaxseed Mucilage......Page 292
6.2.5.3 Psyllium Gum......Page 294
6.2.5.4 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 296
6.2.6.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 297
6.3.1.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 299
6.3.2.1 Sources and Structures......Page 301
6.3.3.1 Sources and Structures......Page 303
6.3.3.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 304
6.4.1.1 Sources and Structures......Page 305
6.4.1.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 306
6.4.3.1 Sources and Structures......Page 307
6.4.3.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 309
6.5.1.2 Functional Properties and Applications......Page 310
References......Page 312
Understanding Starches and Their Role in Foods......Page 314
7.1 Introduction......Page 315
7.2 Starch Isolation and Chemistry......Page 317
7.2.1 Starch Isolation......Page 318
7.2.2.1 Amylose......Page 319
7.2.2.2 Amylopectin......Page 322
7.2.2.4 Minor Components......Page 325
7.3 Granular Structure......Page 326
7.3.1 Starch Morphology......Page 327
7.3.2.2 The Characteristics of Starch Crystallites......Page 329
7.3.2.3 Structure Model of Unit Cell Packing in A and B Type Starches......Page 330
Starch Crystallites......Page 332
7.3.4 Role of Water in Starch Granules......Page 333
7.4 Starch Functionality......Page 335
7.4.1.2 Analytical Techniques to Probe Starch Gelatinization......Page 336
7.4.1.3 Flory- Huggins Equation......Page 337
7.4.1.4 Mechanism of Starch Gelatinization......Page 338
7.4.2.2 Analytical Techniques to Probe Starch Retrogradation......Page 341
7.4.2.4 Mechanism of Starch Retrogradation and Avrami Equation......Page 342
7.4.3.2 Rheological Measurement......Page 343
7.4.3.3 Pasting Profiles of Starches from RVA......Page 344
7.4.3.4 The Characteristics of Starch Pastes......Page 346
7.5 Role of Starches in Foods......Page 347
7.5.1.2 Snack Foods......Page 348
7.5.2.2 Characteristics......Page 349
7.5.2.3 Sources and Formation......Page 350
7.5.2.5 Physiological Effects......Page 351
7.5.3.1 Glycemic Index of Starchy Foods......Page 352
7.5.3.3 Factors Influencing Starch Digestion......Page 353
References......Page 354
Starch Modification and Applications......Page 362
8.1 Introduction......Page 363
8.2 Chemical Modification......Page 364
8.2.1.1 Chemical Reactions......Page 365
8.2.1.2 Preparation Procedures......Page 368
8.2.2 Cross- Linking......Page 369
8.2.2.1 Preparation and Chemical Reactions......Page 370
8.2.2.2 Functional Properties......Page 371
8.2.3 Esterification......Page 373
8.2.3.1 Starch Acetate......Page 374
8.2.3.2 Starch Succinate and Starch Alkenylsuccinate......Page 377
8.2.3.3 Starch Phosphate......Page 380
8.2.4.2 Preparation Procedures......Page 382
8.2.4.4 Applications......Page 383
8.2.5.1 Preparation Procedures......Page 384
8.2.5.2 Functional Properties......Page 386
8.3 Physical Modification......Page 387
8.3.1.3 Applications......Page 388
8.3.2.2 Properties......Page 389
8.3.3.1 Definition and Preparation......Page 390
8.3.3.2 Properties......Page 391
8.3.4.2 Functional Properties......Page 393
8.4.1 Acid Hydrolysis......Page 395
Glucan Maltohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.2)......Page 396
Glucano]- Transferase [ Cyclizing] ( CGTase) EC 2.4.1.19)......Page 397
8.4.3.2 Properties and Applications of Enzyme Hydrolyzates......Page 398
8.4.3.3 Properties and Applications of Acid Hydrolyzates......Page 399
8.5 Biotechnological Modification......Page 401
8.5.1 Mutant Maize Starches......Page 402
8.5.2 Chemical Composition and Semi-crystalline Structure of Mutant Starches......Page 403
8.5.3 Relationship between Molecular Structure and Functional Properties of Mutant Starches......Page 404
References......Page 406