Fire Safe Use Of Wood In Buildings: Global Design Guide

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Contributors
Foreword
Introduction
Chapter 1 Timber structures and wood products
	Scope of chapter
	1.1 Types of building occupancy
		1.1.1 Residential buildings
		1.1.2 Office buildings
		1.1.3 Educational buildings
		1.1.4 Public buildings
		1.1.5 Industrial buildings
	1.2 Types of timber structure
		1.2.1 Light timber frame construction
		1.2.2 Post-and-beam construction
		1.2.3 Mass timber construction
		1.2.4 Long-span structures
		1.2.5 Hybrid structures
		1.2.6 Prefabricated elements and modules
	1.3 Structural timber products
		1.3.1 Sawn timber
		1.3.2 Wood I-joists
		1.3.3 Metal plate wood trusses
		1.3.4 Structural composite lumber
		1.3.5 Glued laminated timber
		1.3.6 Mass timber panels
		1.3.7 Wood-based panels
	1.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2 Fire safety in timber buildings
	Scope of chapter
	2.1 Fire safety goals
		2.1.1 Life safety
		2.1.2 Property protection
		2.1.3 Insurance views
	2.2 Special considerations for timber buildings
		2.2.1 Influence of exposed timber surfaces
		2.2.2 Exposed timber
		2.2.3 Recent reports and guidance on fire safety in timber buildings
	2.3 Fire development
		2.3.1 Time–temperature curve
	2.4 Designing for fire safety
		2.4.1 Human behaviour
		2.4.2 Access and equipment for firefighters
		2.4.3 Fire detection
		2.4.4 Active fire protection
		2.4.5 Passive fire protection
	2.5 Controlling spread of fire
		2.5.1 Fire spread within room of origin
		2.5.2 Fire spread to adjacent rooms on the same level
		2.5.3 Fire spread to other storeys
		2.5.4 Fire spread to other buildings
	2.6 Fire safety design methods
		2.6.1 Prescriptive codes and performance-based codes
		2.6.2 Trade-offs/alternative fire design
	2.7 Fire severity
		2.7.1 Code environment
		2.7.2 Fire design time
		2.7.3 Calculation methods
	2.8 Fire resistance
		2.8.1 Objectives of fire resistance
		2.8.2 Components of fire resistance
			Structural adequacy
			Integrity
			Insulation
		2.8.3 Structural fire resistance
	2.9 Timber protection
		2.9.1 Encapsulation
		2.9.2 Partial encapsulation
		2.9.3 Time to start charring and encapsulation falloff times
	2.10 Design for the full duration of the fire
		2.10.1 Burnout
		2.10.2 Design to withstand burnout
		2.10.3 Self-extinguishment
		2.10.4 Structural design to withstand burnout
		2.10.5 Glueline failure
	2.11 Special provisions for tall timber buildings
	2.12 Fire safety during construction
	2.13 Research needs
	References
Chapter 3 Fire dynamics
	Scope of chapter
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Combustion of wood products
		3.2.1 Effect of temperature and radiant heat
		3.2.2 Flaming combustion
		3.2.3 Smouldering combustion
	3.3 Compartment fires
		3.3.1 Fire development stages
		3.3.2 Fire growth
		3.3.3 Flashover
		3.3.4 Fully developed fire
		3.3.5 External flame projection
		3.3.6 External fire spread to neighbouring buildings
		3.3.7 Species production
	3.4 Compartment fire temperatures
		3.4.1 Energy and mass balance
		3.4.2 Parametric/natural fires
		3.4.3 Localised fires
		3.4.4 Travelling fires
		3.4.5 Standard fire resistance test
	3.5 Fire experiments in CLT compartments
	3.6 Other factors for timber compartments
		3.6.1 Char fall-off
		3.6.2 Protective coverings
		3.6.3 Location of exposed or partially protected timber surfaces
		3.6.4 Wind effects
	3.7 Design to withstand burnout
		3.7.1 Design intent
		3.7.2 Burnout
	3.8 Calculation methods for compartments with exposed timber
		3.8.1 Methods using parametric fires
		3.8.2 Compartment fire models that include wood pyrolysis
		3.8.3 Time equivalence methods
		3.8.4 Summary of fire severity models for mass timber buildings with exposed wood
	3.9 Worked example
		3.9.1 Description
		3.9.2 Procedure
		3.9.3 Experimental results
	3.10 Research needs
	References
Chapter 4 Fire safety requirements in different regions
	Scope of chapter
	4.1 Regulatory control systems for fire safety in buildings
		4.1.1 Europe
		4.1.2 Canada
		4.1.3 USA
		4.1.4 China
		4.1.5 Japan
		4.1.6 Russian Federation
		4.1.7 Australia
			Performance Solution
			Deemed-to-Satisfy Solution (DTS)
		4.1.8 New Zealand
		4.1.9 Other regions
	4.2 International guides and standards
		4.2.1 International Fire Engineering Guide (IFEG)
		4.2.2 International standards
		4.2.3 European guideline
	4.3 National and regional differences for the use of wood
		4.3.1 Residential buildings
			4.3.1.1 Load-bearing timber elements
			4.3.1.2 Visible wood surfaces
		4.3.2 Office buildings
		4.3.3 Differences between European countries
	4.4 Conclusions
	References
		General
		Australia
		Canada
		China
		Europe
		Japan
		New Zealand
		Russian Federation
		USA
Chapter 5 Reaction to fire performance
	Scope of chapter
	5.1 Wood products used as interior finish, exterior cladding or roof covering
		5.1.1 Sawn timber
		5.1.2 Panel products
		5.1.3 Engineered structural wood products
	5.2 Assessing reaction to fire performance of wood products for compliance with prescriptive regulations
		5.2.1 Wall and ceiling linings
			International methods
			Australia and New Zealand
			Europe
			Japan
			North America
			Comparison of reaction to fire classification of surface linings in different countries
		5.2.2 Floor coverings
			International method
			Australia and New Zealand
			Europe
			North America
		5.2.3 Roof coverings
			International method
			New Zealand
			Europe
			North America
		5.2.4 Façade claddings
			International methods
			Australia and New Zealand
			Europe
			Japan
			North America
	5.3 Reaction to fire characteristics of wood products for performance-based design
		5.3.1 Ignitability
			Flaming ignition
			Glowing ignition
		5.3.2 Surface spread of flame
		5.3.3 Burning rate
			Heat release rate
			Pyrolysis models
		5.3.4 Production rate of smoke and toxic products of combustion
	5.4 Methods for improving the reaction to fire performance of wood products
		5.4.1 Fire-retardant treatments, including surface coatings
		5.4.2 Durability of reaction to fire performance
	References
Chapter 6 Fire-separating assemblies
	Scope
	6.1 General
	6.2 Basic requirements for fire-separating assemblies
	6.3 Encapsulation
	6.4 Design methods for separating assemblies
		6.4.1 Methods for determining the fire resistance of separating assemblies
		6.4.2 Classification based on fire testing
		6.4.3 Tabulated design data
		6.4.4 Simplified calculation methods
			Separating Function Method (Europe)
			Component Additive Method (US/Canada)
		6.4.5 Advanced calculation methods
	6.5 Design of assemblies for compartmentation
		6.5.1 Light timber frame walls and floors
			Insulation and lining materials
			Void spaces
			Mechanical impact
			Linings
			Gypsum plasterboards
			Cavity insulation
			Framing members
		6.5.2 Mass timber wall and floor panels
		6.5.3 Hollow core timber elements
		6.5.4 Timber T-beam floors
		6.5.5 Gaps for construction tolerances and shrinkage
		6.5.6 Hybrid Timber–Concrete–Composite floors
		6.5.7 Protection of floors to prevent fire spreading downwards from a fire above
		6.5.8 Openings and penetrations in separating assemblies
	References
Chapter 7 Load-bearing timber structures
	Scope of chapter
	7.1 General
	7.2 Estimation of structural loads
	7.3 Assessment of fire resistance by testing
	7.4 Assessment of fire resistance by calculation
	7.5 Charring of timber and wood-based panels
		7.5.1 Charring of unprotected timber
		7.5.2 Charring of protected timber
		7.5.3 One-dimensional charring
		7.5.4 Two-dimensional charring
		7.5.5 European Charring Model (ECM)
			Charring rates in the ECM
			Charring of linear structural members
			Charring of plane members
		7.5.6 European Charring Model for light timber frame assemblies
			Cavity insulation
			Light timber frame with solid wood members
			Light timber frame with I-joists
		7.5.7 Charring model in the United States
		7.5.8 Charring model in Canada
		7.5.9 Charring model in Australia and New Zealand
	7.6 Materials for protection of timber structures
		7.6.1 Wood-based protection materials
		7.6.2 Gypsum boards
		7.6.3 Clay plasters
		7.6.4 Cement-based boards
		7.6.5 Intumescent coatings
	7.7 Effect of glueline failure
	7.8 Calculation methods for standard fire exposure
		7.8.1 Effective cross-section method in Eurocode 5
			Strength and stiffness
			Effective cross-section
			Design of linear and plane timber members
			Design of light timber frame floor and wall assemblies
		7.8.2 Effective cross-section method in Australia and New Zealand
		7.8.3 Effective cross-section method in the United States
			Unprotected members
			Protected members
		7.8.4 Effective cross-section method in Canada
	7.9 Advanced calculation methods
	7.10 Worked examples
		Calculations of glulam beam protected with fire-rated gypsum plasterboard 15 mm
		7.10.1 Effective Cross-Section method (Europe)
			Effective cross-section:
		7.10.2 Effective cross-section method (Canada)
			Effective cross-section:
			7.10.3 Effective cross-section method (United States)
		7.10.4 Summary
	References
Chapter 8 Timber connections
	Scope of chapter
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Overview of beam-to-column connection typologies
		8.2.1 Timber-to-timber connections
		8.2.2 External metallic plates
		8.2.3 Embedded metal plates
		8.2.4 Fully concealed connectors
	8.3 Mass timber panel connection typologies
		8.3.1 Panel-to-panel: spline, half-lap
		8.3.2 Panel-to-panel hold-down connections
		8.3.3 CLT wall-to-floor panel connections
		8.3.4 Hybrid CLT floor to structural steel frame
	8.4 Elevated temperatures in timber connections
		8.4.1 Review of fire testing results
		8.4.2 Charring in connections
		8.4.3 Influence of applied load
		8.4.4 Loss of strength behind the char layer: influence of thermal penetration depth
		8.4.5 Fire severity
	8.5 Design for fire resistance
		8.5.1 Failure modes
		8.5.2 Beam-to-column bearing connections
		8.5.3 Beam-to-column knife–plate connectors
		8.5.4 Charring localised to screws
		8.5.5 Glued-in dowels and rods
	8.6 CLT panel-to-panel connections
		8.6.1 Design for fire resistance
	8.7 Connections with additional fire protection
		8.7.1 Protection with fire-rated board systems
		8.7.2 Protection using timber
		8.7.3 Protection using intumescent paint
		8.7.4 Timber-to-steel connections
	8.8 Connection design methods
		8.8.1 Char-rate methods
		8.8.2 Acceptance criteria
		8.8.3 Worked examples
		8.8.4 Connection detailing
		8.8.5 Guidance documents
	8.9 Advanced calculation methods
		8.9.1 Modelling of timber connections
		8.9.2 Uncoupled models
		8.9.3 Coupled thermo-mechanical models
	8.10 Further research
	References
Chapter 9 Prevention of fire spread within structures
	Scope of chapter
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Preventing fire spread by detailed design
		9.2.1 Different types of timber constructions
		9.2.2 Typical fire spread paths and principles to prevent fire spread
			Path I: fire spread through failure of separating elements
			Path II: fire spread through joints
			Path III: fire spread through junctions
			Path IV: fire spread through building services
			Path V: fire spread through concealed construction cavities
		9.2.3 Construction tolerances
	9.3 Fire spread via separating elements, joints and junctions
		9.3.1 Fire resistance of separating elements
		9.3.2 Fire resistance of joints between structural elements
		9.3.3 Seismic gaps
	9.4 Fire spread via building service installations and penetrations
		9.4.1 General requirements of fire-stopping building services
		9.4.2 Concepts of fire protection to building services in multi-storey buildings
		9.4.3 Types of building service installations
		9.4.4 Penetration fire–stopping systems for walls and floors
		9.4.5 Service installations embedded within building elements
		9.4.6 Service installation within protected shafts and ducts
		9.4.7 Air ventilation ducts through walls and floors
		9.4.8 Elevated temperature exhaust system penetrations through walls and floors
	9.5 Fire spread via building cavities and ventilation gaps
		9.5.1 Main principles to prevent spread of fire and smoke
		9.5.2 External and internal wall cavities and suspended ceiling spaces
		9.5.3 Cavities between elements of modular construction
			Guidelines for fire stops in modular constructions
	9.6 Vertical fire spread in exterior facade cavities
	References
Chapter 10 Active fire protection by sprinklers
	Scope of chapter
	10.1 General concepts of active fire protection
	10.2 Detection, alarm and smoke management systems
	10.3 Sprinkler systems
		10.3.1 Objectives of sprinkler systems
		10.3.2 Components of sprinkler systems
		10.3.3 Wet-pipe and dry-pipe fire sprinkler systems
		10.3.4 Residential sprinkler systems
		10.3.5 Water mist systems
		10.3.6 Sprinklers in earthquake areas
	10.4 Sprinkler effects on fire safety
		10.4.1 Effects on fire development
		10.4.2 Property protection by sprinklers
		10.4.3 Life safety by sprinklers
		10.4.4 Cost-benefit analysis
	10.5 Sprinkler reliability, performance and effectiveness
		10.5.1 Sprinkler reliability
		10.5.2 Sprinkler effectiveness
		10.5.3 Sprinkler management procedures
	10.6 Fire safety design with sprinklers: implementation in different countries
		10.6.1 Countries with sprinkler requirements for taller timber buildings
		10.6.2 Countries with possibilities for alternative fire safety design with sprinklers
			Australia
			New Zealand
			Canada
			The United States
			Europe
			Finland
			Sweden
		10.6.3 Examples of reduced fire precautions with sprinklers
	10.7 Justification for reduced fire precautions with sprinklers
	10.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 11 Performance-based design and risk assessment
	Scope of chapter
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Performance-based design
		11.1.2 Early developments
		11.1.3 Overview of the fire safety design process
		11.1.4 Pathways for demonstrating compliance
		11.1.5 Sources of further information
			General References/International Standards
			Europe
			UK
			Australia
			New Zealand
			The United States
	11.2 Hazard analysis and fire scenarios
		11.2.1 Overview of hazard analysis process
		11.2.2 Overview of fire scenarios
		11.2.3 Rationalisation of fire scenarios for quantitative risk assessments
		11.2.4 Rationalisation of fire scenarios for deterministic analyses
		11.2.5 Prescribed fire scenarios
	11.3 Application of analysis methods to timber construction
		11.3.1 Hazard identification
		11.3.2 Preliminary qualitative and quantitative analysis
		11.3.3 Fire scenarios for quantitative risk assessment
		11.3.4 Quantitative risk assessment of structure and barrier performance
	References
Chapter 12 Robustness in fire
	Scope of chapter
	12.1 Basics of structural robustness
	12.2 Basics of robustness and fire safety engineering
	12.3 Normative framework and robustness
	12.4 Exposure types
	12.5 Consequences resulting from a fire event
	12.6 Evaluation of improvements performed in practice
		12.6.1 Prevention of progressive collapse for the fire situation
		12.6.2 Approaches for improved robustness for timber buildings
		12.6.3 Improvement of the robustness for structural timber buildings
	12.7 Design of timber buildings for reuse after a fire
	12.8 Discussion and conclusion
	References
Chapter 13 Building execution and control
	Scope of chapter
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Control of workmanship
		13.2.1 Installation of fire protection measures
		13.2.2 Installation of fire stops and cavity barriers
	13.3 Inspection during construction
		13.3.1 Inspection of passive fire protection measures
		13.3.2 Inspection of active fire protection systems
		13.3.3 Coordination of interacting trades
		13.3.4 Documentation
	13.4 Fire safety during construction
		13.4.1 Recommended fire precautions during construction
	13.5 Responsibility and enforcement
		13.5.1 Responsible parties
		13.5.2 Adoption and application
	13.6 Preventive measures
		13.6.1 Fire safety plan
		13.6.2 Fire safety coordinator
		13.6.3 Control of ignition sources
			Hot works
			Electrical equipment
			Smoking
			Other ignition sources and fuel sources
		13.6.4 Control of combustible materials
			Stored and waste materials
			Storage of combustible building materials
			Exposed combustible materials during construction
			Protection of light timber frame construction
		13.6.5 Prevention against arson
		13.6.6 Liaison with fire authorities
		13.6.7 Water supplies
		13.6.8 Staff training and human activities
			Fire safety awareness
			Training and fire drills
			Fire checks
	13.7 Fire detection and suppression
		13.7.1 Alarm and detection
		13.7.2 Active fire protection
			Portable fire extinguishers
			Automatic sprinkler system
			Hydrants
		13.7.3 Compartmentation of the building
		13.7.4 Protection of combustible construction
		13.7.5 Protection of neighbouring buildings
		13.7.6 Means of egress – Escape routes
		13.7.7 Fire service access
	13.8 Emergency procedures
	References
Chapter 14 Firefighting considerations for timber buildings
	Scope of chapter
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Traditional fire knowledge
	14.3 Fire service concerns related to mass timber buildings
	14.4 Light timber frame construction
		14.4.1 Light timber frame structures with solid timber members
		14.4.2 Light timber frame structures with engineered wood products
		14.4.3 Charring in protected light timber frames
	14.5 Mass timber structures
		14.5.1 Strategies for protection of mass timber structures
		14.5.2 Exposed timber structures
		14.5.3 Combustible linings
		14.5.4 CLT structures
	14.6 Tall timber buildings
		14.6.1 Sprinkler systems
		14.6.2 Firefighter access
		14.6.3 Burnout
	14.7 Firefighting considerations
		14.7.1 Firefighting water supplies
		14.7.2 External fire exposure to surrounding buildings
		14.7.3 Combustible cores and vertical enclosures
		14.7.4 Void spaces and cavities
		14.7.5 Identifying voids and fires within voids
		14.7.6 Extinguishing fires within a void
		14.7.7 Extinguishing fires in wood‐based materials
		14.7.8 Extinguishing agents
		14.7.9 Non-direct attack
		14.7.10 Comparison of extinguishing equipment
	14.8 Wind-driven fires
		14.8.1 Influence of wind on fire intensity
	14.9 Design stage and fire service involvement
		14.9.1 Liaison with fire authorities
	14.10 Pre-incident planning
		14.10.1 Tall timber buildings
		14.10.2 Fire service involvement during construction and demolition
		14.10.3 Fire system impairment
		14.10.4 Fire service site training and familiarisation
	14.11 Post-earthquake fires and fire service response
	14.12 Future needs
	References
Index