Fig (Ficus carica): Production, Processing, and Properties

Preface
Description
Contents
About the Editor
Chapter 1: Introduction to Fig (Ficus carica): Production, Processing, and Properties
	1 Fig (Ficus carica): Production, Processing, and Properties
	2 Fig (Ficus carica) Market
	3 Fig (Ficus carica) in the Scientific Literature
	4 Aims and Features of This Book
	References
Part I: Fig (Ficus carica): Cultivation, Species, and Cultivars
	Chapter 2: Figs in Morocco: Diversity Patterns, Valorization Pathways and Value Chain Resilience
		1 Introduction
		2 Genetic Diversity Patterns
			2.1 Overview of Available Fig Germplasm
			2.2 Fruit Morphometric Diversity
			2.3 Fruit Chemodiversity
			2.4 Molecular Fingerprinting
		3 Valorization Pathways
		4 Value Chain and Its Resilience
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Fig Tree Genome and Diversity
		1 Origin, Taxonomy and Biological Properties of the Common Fig
		2 Fig Genetic Resources: The Importance of Research
		3 Tools for Fig Genetic Resources Diversity Studies
			3.1 Morphological Evaluation
			3.2 Molecular Evaluation
				3.2.1 Development of Fig Microsatellites
			3.3 Application of Microsatellites in Fig Diversity Studies
		4 Gene, Genomic and Transcriptomic Studies of Figs
			4.1 Genomic Studies
				4.1.1 Genome Characterization
				4.1.2 New Research Approaches and Findings Based on the Available Genomes
			4.2 Transcriptomic and Gene-Based Studies
				4.2.1 Mechanisms Related to Fruit Development and Ripening
				4.2.2 Secondary Metabolites
				4.2.3 Physiological Differences Between Common Fig Types
				4.2.4 Response to Abiotic Factors
				4.2.5 Response to Biotic Factors
		5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 4: Genetic Diversity of Fig Varieties
		1 Introduction
		2 Genetic Variability in Fig Germplasm
			2.1 Morphological Variability
			2.2 Pomological Traits
			2.3 Agronomical Parameters
			2.4 Molecular and Biochemical Variability Assessment
				2.4.1 Structure and Composition of Fig Genome
				2.4.2 SSR Markers
			2.5 Biochemical Traits and Phytochemical Contents Divers
			2.6 Proteomic and Transcriptomic Analysis
		3 Multivariate Statistical Analysis of Qualitative and Quantitative Traits
		4 Variation in Graft Compatibility of Wild Fig Species as Rootstocks
		5 Trends in Fig Germplasm Conservation
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: Bud Structure and Evolution
		1 Fig Buds Description
		2 Development and Evolution of Inflorescence
		3 Influence of Cultural Practices and Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) on the Buds
		References
	Chapter 6: Phenotypic Variability of Fig (Ficus carica L.)
		1 Introduction
		2 Botany and Biology in Different Types of Figs
		3 Germplasm Diversity and Conservation
		4 Wild Figs, Cultivars, Local Clones, and Hybrids
			4.1 Wild Fig
			4.2 Cultivars and Local Clones
			4.3 Hybrids and Transgenic Varieties
		5 Morphological Characteristics
			5.1 Biological Characteristics
			5.2 Vegetative Characteristics
				5.2.1 Growth Traits
				5.2.2 Leaf Traits
			5.3 Pomological Characteristics
				5.3.1 Environmental Condition’s Effects on Fruit Characteristics
				5.3.2 Caprification Effects on Fruit Morphological Characteristics
		6 Descriptor’s Optimization Tools
			6.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
			6.2 Correlation Coefficients
			6.3 Heritability
		7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 7: Morpho-Chemical Characteristics Useful in the Identification of Fig (Ficus carica L.) Germplasm
		1 Introduction
		2 Plant and leaf Characteristics
		3 Fruit Characteristics
		4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 8: Agronomic Strategies for Fig Cultivation in a Temperate-Humid Climate Zone
		1 Introduction
		2 Eco-physiological Requirements of Fig Tree
		3 Climatic Conditions of the Central Area of Santa Fe and Their Suitability for Fig Cultivation
		4 Climatic Conditions with Adverse Effects of Humidity on the Fig Tree and Its Fruits
		5 Alternatives to Reduce the Adverse Effects of Rains During the Fruit Ripening Period
		6 The Extension of the Harvest Period as an Alternative to Reduce the Risk of Fruit Damage by Rains During fruit Maturation
			6.1 Promotion of Stem Growth as a Strategy to Extend the Harvest Period
				6.1.1 Irrigation
				6.1.2 Nitrogen Fertilization
				6.1.3 Pruning Intensity
				6.1.4 Other Strategies to Improve Stem Growth
		7 Effects of Annual Renewal of the Canopy
		8 Fig Production Strategies
			8.1 Stimulation of Fruit Growth and Ripening
		9 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 9: Cultivars and Agriculture Practice of Fig (Ficus carica)
		1 Introduction
		2 Fig Cultivars
			2.1 Fig Cultivars
		3 Production Process
			3.1 Nutrient Control
			3.2 Water Requirement
			3.3 Soil Requirement
		4 Fig Production in Soilless Culture
			4.1 Propagation
			4.2 Soilless Media for Growing Fig Indoor
				4.2.1 Rockwool
				4.2.2 Coconut Coir
				4.2.3 The Aggregate of Expanded Clay
				4.2.4 Perlite
				4.2.5 Vermiculite
				4.2.6 Cubes of Oasis
				4.2.7 Sand
				4.2.8 Peat Moss
				4.2.9 Growstones
				4.2.10 Husks of Rice
				4.2.11 Pine needles
				4.2.12 Pumice
				4.2.13 Sawdust
				4.2.14 Polyurethane Slabs
				4.2.15 Gravel
			4.3 Fig Cultivation
			4.4 Mulching
			4.5 Irrigation
			4.6 Pruning
			4.7 Fruit Development and Growth
			4.8 Harvesting
			4.9 Disease Prevention and Control
		References
	Chapter 10: Physiological Behaviour of Fig Tree (Ficus carica L.) Under Different Climatic Conditions
		1 Environmental Constraints on Fig Growth and Fruiting
		2 Drought Stress Mitigation by Different Approaches in Rain-Fed Fig Cultivation
		3 Physiological Characteristics of Fig Grown in Different Regions
		4 Fig Responses and Resilience Towards Drought Under Different Climatic Conditions
		References
	Chapter 11: Fig (Ficus carica L.) Production and Yield
		1 Conventional and Molecular Breeding Systems in Fig (Ficus carica L.)
		2 Fig Production, Research, and Development
		3 Fig Fruit Latex Yield and Protease Activity as Influenced by Cultivar, Maturity Stage and Harvesting Time
		4 Fig Production in Subtropical South-Western Saudi Arabia
		5 Fig Pollination and Caprification System
		6 Micropropagation of Ficus carica L. Studies on the Propagation of Fig Cultivars by Budding
		7 Fertigation with Potassium Increases Size and Yield in Fresh Figs
		8 Effect of Gibberellic Acid on Growth, Yield and Fruit Quality of Fig (Ficus carica L.)
		9 Increasing the Tolerance of Fig Trees to Drought Stress by Trunk Thinning
		10 Effect of In Vitro Thermotherapy Application on Shoot Development in Some Fig Cultivars
		11 GIS-Based Soil Suitability Evaluation for Fig Orchards in Southern Peloponnese, Greece
		12 Effect of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on Fruit Characters, Quality, and Economics of Fig Production
		13 Shelf-Life Extension Using Modified Atmosphere Packaging and Moisture Absorption
		14 Developing the Fresh Fig Industry
		15 Fresh, Semi-Dried and Sun-Dried Fig (Ficus carica ‘Sarılop’) Fruit Production
		16 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 12: Defense Mechanism of Fig (Ficus carica) Against Biotic Stresses: An Advanced Role Model Under Moraceae
		1 Introduction
		2 Physical Barriers or Structural Defenses
			2.1 Hard, Tough and Mineralized Leaf Texture
			2.2 Calcium Oxalate Crystal-Based Defense
			2.3 Calcium Carbonate (Cystoliths) Based Structural Defense
			2.4 Silica Compositions
			2.5 Crystal Enriched Idioblast Cell
		3 Specialized Transformed Structures
			3.1 Glandular Trichomes
			3.2 Non-glandular Trichomes
			3.3 Laticifers
		4 Cellular Defense Responses
			4.1 Rapid Active Cellular Defense
			4.2 Delayed Active Cellular Defense
				4.2.1 Alternation of Membrane Function
				4.2.2 Oxidative Burst
				4.2.3 Reinforcement of Cell Wall
				4.2.4 Hypersensitive Response (HR)
				4.2.5 Phytoalexin Accumulation
		5 Formation of Defensive Metabolites and Proteins as Biochemical Defense
			5.1 The potential Metabolites
				5.1.1 Alkaloids
				5.1.2 Terpenoids
				5.1.3 Phenolics
			5.2 Defensive Proteins Present in Ficus species
				5.2.1 Chitinases
				5.2.2 Oxidases
				5.2.3 Proteases
				5.2.4 Protease Inhibitors
			5.3 Some Important Pathogenesis-Related Proteins (PRs)
			5.4 Different Associative Proteins
		6 Role of Genotype and Environmental Factors in Ficus Defense Mechanisms
			6.1 Role of Genotype in Modifying the Defense Mechanism
			6.2 Role of Plant Age and Season in Modifying the Defense Mechanism
		7 Inducible Defense Mechanism
		8 Evolutionary Trends Towards Complex Adaptation
		9 Evolution and Coevolution
		10 Pattern of Defense Mechanism in Various Parts of Ficus
		11 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
Part II: Fig (Ficus carica): Chemistry, Functionality and Health-Promoting Properties
	Chapter 13: Chemistry and Nutritional Value of Fresh and Dried Fig (Ficus carica)
		1 Introduction
		2 Nutrients and Phytochemicals in Fresh and Dried Figs
		3 Specific Phytochemicals in Fresh and Dried Figs
		4 Future Perspectives
		References
	Chapter 14: Fig Seeds: Source of Value-Added Oil Within the Scope of Circular Economy
		1 Fig Seeds: A Novel Source of Oil
		2 Fatty Acids Profile
		3 Fatty Acids Ratios
		4 Chemical and Biochemical Properties
		5 Fig Seeds Valorization Through Circular Economy
		6 Conclusions and Future Research Directions
		References
	Chapter 15: Fig (Ficus carica) Leaves: Composition and Functional Properties
		1 Extraction of Bioactive Compounds
		2 Phenolic Content and Common Phenolic Acids
		3 Flavonoid Content and Common Flavonoids
		4 Anthocyanin
		5 Proanthocyanidins
		6 Coumarins
		7 Tannins
		8 Carotenoids
		9 Terpenes and Other Volatile Compounds
		10 Fatty Acids and Phytosterols
		11 Vitamins and Other Compounds
		References
	Chapter 16: Fig (Ficus carica) Seed Oil
		1 Fig Seeds and Its Oil
		2 Extraction and Processing of Fig Oil
		3 Minor Bioactive Compounds
		4 Antioxidant Activity and Other Health-Promoting Effects
		5 Volatile Compounds’ Contribution to Organoleptic Properties
		References
	Chapter 17: Composition and Functional Properties of Fig (Ficus carica) Phenolics
		1 Introduction
		2 Total Phenolics, Total Flavonoids and Total Anthocyanins in Figs
		3 Individual Phenolic Compounds in Figs
		4 Extraction Methods
		5 Biological Activities of Figs
			5.1 Antioxidant Activity
			5.2 Antimicrobial Activity
			5.3 Anticancer Activity
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 18: Phenolic Compounds of Fresh and Dried Figs: Characterization and Health Benefits
		1 Introduction
		2 Research Methods
		3 Fig Phytochemicals
			3.1 Extraction and Quantification Processes
			3.2 Phenolic Composition of Fig Fruit
				3.2.1 Phenolic Acids
				3.2.2 Flavonoids
		4 Health Benefits of Figs
			4.1 Antioxidant Activity
			4.2 Antimicrobial Activity
			4.3 Antidiabetic Effect
			4.4 Anticancer Activity
			4.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
			4.6 Effect on Alzheimer’s Disease
			4.7 Antispasmodic Activity
			4.8 Anti-Osteoporotic Potential
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 19: Ficus carica L. as a Source of Natural Bioactive Flavonoids
		1 Introduction
		2 Structure, Occurrence and Function of Flavonoids
		3 Biologically Active Flavonoids
		4 Flavonoids in Ficus carica L.
			4.1 Total Flavonoids Content in Ficus carica L.
			4.2 Flavonoids Extraction from Ficus carica L.
			4.3 Flavonoid Profile of Ficus carica L.
				4.3.1 Methods of Characterization
				4.3.2 General Flavonoid Profile
				4.3.3 Flavonols in Ficus carica L.
				4.3.4 Flavones in Ficus carica L.
				4.3.5 Isoflavones in Ficus carica L.
				4.3.6 Anthocyanins in Ficus carica L.
				4.3.7 Flavanones in Ficus carica L.
				4.3.8 Flavan-3-Ols in Ficus carica L.
		5 Bioaccessibility of Flavonoids in Ficus carica L.
		6 Impact of Post-harvest Processing on Flavonoids in Ficus carica L.
		7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 20: Fig Minerals
		1 Introduction
		2 Botanical Description
		3 Ingredients of F. carica
		4 Mineral Composition of Fig
			4.1 The Plant
			4.2 Seeds
			4.3 The Ripe Fruits
		References
	Chapter 21: Bioactive Compounds of Fig (Ficus carica)
		1 Introduction
		2 Polyphenols
			2.1 Flavonoids
				2.1.1 Anthocyanins
				2.1.2 Flavonols
				2.1.3 Flavanols
				2.1.4 Flavones
			2.2 Phenolic Acids
			2.3 Coumarins
		3 Carotenoids
		4 Vitamins
		5 Organic Acids
		6 Terpenes
		7 Phytosterols
		8 Fatty Acids
		9 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 22: Fig Volatiles
		1 Introduction
		2 Chemical Composition of Volatiles
		3 Extraction Techniques
		4 Factors Affecting Fig Volatiles
		5 Biological Activities of Fig Volatiles
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 23: Fig Enzymes: Characterization, Biological Roles, and Applications
		1 Introduction
		2 Fig Enzymes
		3 Ficin: The Most Important Enzyme of Fig Latex
		4 Industrial Applications of Ficin
			4.1 Bioactive Compounds Synthesis
			4.2 Food Industries
			4.3 Pharmaceutical, Medical and Cosmetic Industries
		5 Ficin Immobilization to Improve Industrial Applications
		6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	Chapter 24: Preventive Roles of Phytochemicals from Ficus carica in Diabetes and Its Secondary Complications
		1 Introduction
		2 Management of Diabetes
		3 Glycation
		4 Oxidative Stress
		5 Ficus Species and Its Phytochemicals
		6 Natural Products from Ficus Species as Antidiabetic Agents
		7 Prevention of Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs) by Phytochemicals from Ficus carica
		8 Antioxidants Derived from Ficus in Diabetes Management
		9 Natural Products from Ficus carica for Prevention of Secondary Complications of Diabetes
		References
	Chapter 25: Composition and Health-Promoting Effects of Fig (Ficus carica) Extracts
		1 Introduction
		2 Nutritional and Phytochemical Composition of Fig
			2.1 Nutritional Composition of Figs (Ficus carica)
			2.2 Phytochemical Composition of Figs (Ficus carica)
		3 Health-Promoting Effects of Fig
			3.1 Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory
			3.2 Antidiabetic
			3.3 Anti-cancer Effect
			3.4 Anti-diuretic Effects
			3.5 Anti-neurodegenerative Effects
			3.6 Anti-lipidemic/Cholesterol Limiting Effect
			3.7 Hepatoprotective Effect
			3.8 Anti-hypertensive Effect
		4 Storage and Preservation of Bioactive Contents of Ficus carica
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 26: Genotoxic and Antimutagenic Activity of Ficus carica Extracts
		1 Introduction
		2 Genotoxicity and Its Assessment Techniques
		3 Overview of Ficus carica
		4 Therapeutic Potential of Ficus carica
		5 Genotoxicity and Antimutagenic Evidence for Ficus carica
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 27: Composition and Biological Activities of Ficus carica Latex
		1 Introduction
		2 Bioactive Metabolites Described in Fig (Ficus carica L.) Latex
			2.1 Phenolic Compounds
				2.1.1 Phenolic Acids
				2.1.2 Flavonoids and Coumarins
			2.2 Terpenoids and Sterols
			2.3 Xanthones, Hydrocarbons, Fatty Acids, Aromatic Compounds, Amino Acids, and Other Nitrogenous Compounds
			2.4 Rubber
			2.5 Proteins
				2.5.1 Protease Activity
					Cysteine Protease Activity
					Serine Protease Activity
				2.5.2 Peroxidase Activity
				2.5.3 Chitinase Activity
				2.5.4 Amylase Activity
				2.5.5 Lipase Activity
		3 Biological Activities of Fig Latex
			3.1 Antimicrobial Activity
			3.2 Antiviral Activity
			3.3 Anticancer Activity
			3.4 Anti-Angiogenic Activity
			3.5 Antioxidant Activity
			3.6 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
			3.7 Anticoagulant Activity
			3.8 Antihypertensive Activity (Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors Activity)
			3.9 Hepatoprotective Activity
			3.10 Antiparasitic Activity
			3.11 Adverse Reactions
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 28: Extraction and Analysis of Polyphenolic Compounds in Ficus carica L.
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Nutritional and Health Benefits of Ficus carica L.
			1.2 Plant Secondary Metabolites
				1.2.1 Phenolics
			1.3 Extraction Methods of Polyphenols from Figs
				1.3.1 Conventional Extraction Techniques
					The Application of SLE in the Extraction of Phenolics from Figs
				1.3.2 Modern SLE Based Extraction Methods
			1.4 Methods of Detection of Polyphenols in Fig Fruits
		2 Challenges and Future Trends
		3 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Fig (Ficus carica): Technology, Processing, and Applications
	Chapter 29: Fig (Ficus carica) Drying Technologies
		1 Introduction
		2 Criteria to Consider for Dried Fruits
		3 Fig Drying Technologies
			3.1 Natural Sun-Drying
			3.2 Artificial Drying
				3.2.1 Solar Drying
				3.2.2 Heat Pump Dryer
				3.2.3 Pilot Cabinet Dryer
				3.2.4 Microwave Drying
				3.2.5 Microwave Hot Air Drying
				3.2.6 Microwave Vacuum Drying
				3.2.7 Heat-Drying Ovens
				3.2.8 Electric Drying
				3.2.9 Tray Dryer
				3.2.10 Spray Drying Technology
		4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fig Drying
			4.1 Impact of Fig Drying on Its Technological Characteristics
			4.2 Effects on the Chemical Composition and Nutraceutical Content
			4.3 Nutritional Traits Modification
		5 Shelf-Life Extension Using Modified Atmosphere Packaging
		6 Conclusions and Future Prospects of Fig Drying
		References
	Chapter 30: Chemistry and Functionality of Processed Figs
		1 Introduction
		2 Types of Processed Figs
		3 Composition of Processed Figs
		4 Bioactive Components of Processed Fig
		5 Stability of Bioactive Components
			5.1 Bioactive Components
		6 Functionality of Processed Fig
			6.1 Functional Properties
			6.2 Fig as a Functional Food
		7 The General Impact of Figs on Health
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 31: Fig (Ficus carica) Syrup as a Natural Sugar Substitute
		1 Fig and Fig Compounds
			1.1 Carbohydrate
			1.2 Nutrition and Health Considerations of Sugar Substitutes
				1.2.1 Glycemic Index (GI)
				1.2.2 Dental Health
				1.2.3 Calorie Control and Weight Management
				1.2.4 Diabetes Mellitus
				1.2.5 Hypoglycemic Effect
			1.3 Dried Fig Fruits
			1.4 Sugar Replacement in Food Product
				1.4.1 Synthetic Sugar Replacement in a Food Product (High-Potency Sweeteners)
				1.4.2 Natural High-Potency Sweeteners
				1.4.3 Plants and Fruits as a Source of Natural Sugar Replacement in Food Products
			1.5 Fig Syrup
				1.5.1 Fig Syrup Production
				1.5.2 Powder Production of Fig or Fig Syrup
		2 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 32: Fig (Ficus carica) Shelf Life
		1 Shelf Life
		2 Fig Shelf Life
		3 Factors Influencing the Shelf Life of Fig
			3.1 Fig Characteristics
			3.2 Microbiological Spoilage
			3.3 Chemical Deterioration
			3.4 Physical Deterioration
			3.5 Transportation, Distribution, Temperature, Storage Atmosphere, Insects and Package
			3.6 Moisture
		4 Techniques on Shelf Life Extension of the Fig
			4.1 Common Techniques on Shelf Life Extension of Fig
				4.1.1 Drying
				4.1.2 Chemical Treatments
				4.1.3 Packaging
			4.2 Novel Techniques on Shelf Life Extension of Fig
				4.2.1 Edible Coating
				4.2.2 Irradiation
				4.2.3 Ozone
				4.2.4 Cold Plasma (CP)
				4.2.5 Electrolyzed Water (EW)
				4.2.6 Antimicrobials
		5 Future Trend
		References
	Chapter 33: Use of Proteolytic Activity of Ficus carica in Milk Coagulation
		1 Introduction
		2 An Overview of Use of Plant Proteases in Milk Coagulation
		3 Chemistry, Composition, and Properties of Proteases in F. carica
			3.1 Ficins (EC 3.4.22.3); the Major Proteolytic Enzyme in F. carica
			3.2 Other Proteolytic Components in F. carica
		4 Enzymatic Extractions and Sample Preparations
		5 Milk Clotting Properties of Ficins from F. carica
		6 Other Beneficial Roles of Using F. carica in Milk Coagulation
		References
	Chapter 34: The Potential of Fig (Ficus carica) for New Products
		1 Introduction
		2 Fig Products
			2.1 Dried Fig
			2.2 Fig Paste and Puree
			2.3 Fig Jam
			2.4 Fig Juice
			2.5 Fig Jelly
			2.6 Wine and Vinegar
		3 Value-Added Fig Products
			3.1 Extraction of Phenolic Compounds
			3.2 Fig Seed Oil
			3.3 Fig Powder
			3.4 Food Colorant
			3.5 Fig Pectin
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 35: Fig Production and Processing: A Pakistan Perspective
		1 Introduction
		2 Fig Tree and Its Cultivation
		3 The Scenario of Fig Production in Pakistan
		4 Fig Fruit
		5 Nutritional Composition of Fig Fruit
		6 Medicinal Properties of Fig Fruit
		7 Perishability of Fig Fruit
		8 Fungal Invasion and Mycotoxin Production in Fig Fruit
		9 Fig Fruit Processing and Value Addition in Pakistan
		10 Fig-Based Value-Added Food Products
			10.1 Dried Fig
			10.2 Fig Powder
			10.3 Fig Jam
			10.4 Fig Paste
			10.5 Fig Seed Oil
			10.6 Fig Pickle and Fig Chutney
			10.7 Canned Figs
		References
	Chapter 36: Wound Healing and Ficus carica (Fig)
		1 Healing Powers of Fig
		2 Ficus carica and Its Enzymes
		3 Wound Healing Properties of Fig in Eliminating Biofilms
		4 Ficin and Its Medicinal Profile from Different Parts of Fig
		5 Fig Latex and Mechanism of Tissue Repair
		6 Incision and Excision Medel: Wound Healing Activity
		7 Evidence Clinical Study of Wound Healing with Fig
		8 Conclusion
		References
Index