Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, 4th Edition

Chromosomes......Page 1
Gene Structure......Page 2
Regulation of Gene Expression......Page 4
Stem Cells and Development......Page 5
Meiosis......Page 6
Chromosomal Mutations......Page 7
Autosomal Dominant Disorders......Page 8
X-Linked Disorders......Page 9
Multifactorial Disorders......Page 10
Blot Hybridization......Page 11
Biomedical Applications of Molecular Gen......Page 12
Gene Mapping......Page 14
Gene and Cell Therapy......Page 15
Suggested Reading......Page 16
Index......Page 0
Nucleic Acid Hybridization......Page 17
Expression Libraries......Page 18
Polymorphic Markers......Page 19
Identification of Disease-Associated Gen......Page 20
DISEASE INHERITANCE AND MOLECULAR  PATHO......Page 21
TRADITIONAL AND MOLECULAR CYTOGENETICS......Page 22
Chromosomal Basis of Nonmendelian Diseas......Page 23
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 24
Suggested Reading......Page 25
Reproductive History......Page 26
Family History......Page 27
Maternal Serum Screening for Aneuploidy......Page 28
First-Trimester Screening for Aneuploidy......Page 29
Chorionic Villus Sampling......Page 30
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis......Page 31
References......Page 32
Organization of the Gonad......Page 34
Development of the Female Gamete (See Ch......Page 35
Early Development of Male Gametes (See C......Page 36
FERTILIZATION......Page 37
MORPHOGENESIS......Page 38
Further Development of the Central Nervo......Page 40
The Ear (See Chapter 171)......Page 41
Heart......Page 42
Vessels......Page 43
cardiac MuScle......Page 44
Digestive System (See Chapters 108 and 1......Page 45
Urinary System (See Chapter 123)......Page 46
GROWTH AND MATURATION OF THE EMBRYO AND......Page 47
REFERENCES......Page 48
MESODERMAL INDUCTION IN THE BLASTULA IS......Page 50
DURING GASTRULATION, THE EMBRYO IS  PATT......Page 52
NEURULATION IS INITIATED BY RECEPTOR  TY......Page 53
SEGMENTATION IS CONTROLLED BY SIGNALING......Page 54
SEGMENT POSITIONAL IDENTITY IS CONFERRED......Page 56
SUMMARY......Page 57
REFERENCES......Page 58
GENETIC APPROACHES TO DISSECTING EXTRACE......Page 60
Signaling Through Integrins......Page 61
Integrins and Angiogenesis......Page 62
CONCLUSION......Page 63
REFERENCES......Page 64
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 65
CONCEPTS AND NOMENCLATURE......Page 66
Embryonic Development......Page 69
Embryonic Stem Cells of Mouse Origin......Page 70
Embryonic Stem Cells of Human Origin......Page 71
SOMATIC STEM CELLS (TISSUE-RESIDENT OR T......Page 72
SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER......Page 74
NUCLEAR FUSION AND REPROGRAMMING (“INDUC......Page 75
Replacement Cell and Gene Therapies: Neu......Page 76
REFERENCES......Page 77
SUGGESTED READING......Page 79
Hoxb2, Hoxb3, Hoxb4, and Hoxb6......Page 83
Liver......Page 84
Intestinal Tract......Page 85
HOMEOBOX GENES AND LIMB DEVELOPMENT......Page 86
HOMEOBOX GENES AND KIDNEY DEVELOPMENT......Page 87
Homeobox Genes and the Heart......Page 88
Divergent Hox Genes......Page 89
Hox GENES AND HEMATOPOIESIS......Page 90
SUMMARY......Page 91
APOPTOSIS......Page 95
APOPTOSIS......Page 96
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN APOPTOTIC AND NECRO......Page 98
Gene Expression and Activation......Page 99
Availability of Adenosine Triphosphate......Page 100
Bcl-2 Family Members and Mitochondria......Page 101
REFERENCES......Page 102
EMBRYONIC/FETAL ANGIOGENESIS......Page 105
PLACENTAL ANGIOGENESIS......Page 106
Mode of Action......Page 107
REFERENCES......Page 108
Villous Development......Page 111
Development of the Maternofetal Barrier......Page 112
Trophoblast......Page 113
Villous Types......Page 116
Cotyledons and Villous Trees......Page 117
Interstitial Trophoblast Invasion......Page 119
 Arterial Trophoblast Invasion......Page 120
FETAL MEMBRANES......Page 121
REFERENCES......Page 122
DEVELOPMENT OF THE UTEROPLACENTAL AND UM......Page 124
VASOCONSTRICTORS......Page 126
PROSTAGLANDINS......Page 128
REFERENCES......Page 129
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......Page 130
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone......Page 131
Infection......Page 132
PREDICTION OF PRETERM LABOR......Page 133
REFERENCES......Page 134
Diffusional Transfer......Page 136
Hydrophilic Permeability......Page 138
Lipophilic Permeability......Page 139
Exocytosis......Page 140
TRANSPORTER PROTEIN–MEDIATED TRANSPORT......Page 141
Amino Acids......Page 142
GESTATIONAL CHANGES......Page 143
PLACENTAL TRANSFER AND FETAL GROWTH......Page 144
REFERENCES......Page 145
HYPOPHYSEAL- LIKE HORMONES......Page 150
STEROIDOGENESIS AND THE MATERNAL-FETAL-P......Page 151
HYPOTHALAMIC-LIKE RELEASING AND INHIBITI......Page 153
OTHER CHORIONIC CYTOKINES, GROWTH FACTOR......Page 154
EICOSANOIDS......Page 155
REFERENCES......Page 156
16 Fetal and Maternal Responses to Intrauterine Infection......Page 160
MICROBIOLOGY OF INTRAAMNIOTIC INFECTION......Page 161
Microbial Invasion of the Amniotic Cavity in Patients With Preterm Labor and Intact Membranes......Page 162
Microbial Invasion of the Amniotic Cavity at the Time of Genetic Amniocentesis......Page 163
Is the Relationship Between Intrauterine Infection and Spontaneous Preterm Birth Causal?......Page 164
Detection of Microbial Footprints in Amniotic Fluid with Sequence-Based Techniques......Page 165
Prostaglandins and Lipoxygenase Products......Page 166
Matrix-Degrading Enzymes......Page 167
Hematopoietic System......Page 168
Fetal Heart......Page 169
CONCLUSION......Page 170
REFERENCES......Page 171
17 Maternal Cardiovascular Disease and Fetal Growth and Development......Page 178
Contractility and Blood Volume......Page 179
Anatomic Changes in Maternal Uterine Blood Flow in Pregnancy......Page 180
Overview and Definitions......Page 182
Preeclampsia and Eclampsia......Page 183
Infarction, Atherosis, Thrombosis......Page 184
Growth Restriction......Page 186
Substrate Delivery......Page 187
Glucocorticoids......Page 188
Apoptosis......Page 189
Antihypertensives......Page 190
REFERENCES......Page 191
PROGRAMMING......Page 199
BIOLOGIC MECHANISMS......Page 200
Large Placentas......Page 202
REFERENCES......Page 203
BACKGROUND INFORMATION......Page 205
Determination of Chorionicity......Page 206
Uterine Changes......Page 207
Endocrine Adaptation......Page 208
Normal Growth......Page 209
Multifetal Reduction......Page 210
Monoamniotic Twins......Page 211
Twin-to-Twin Transfusion Syndrome......Page 212
Intrauterine Fetal Demise of One Twin......Page 214
REFERENCES......Page 215
Membrane Transporters......Page 219
Bioavailability......Page 220
Physiologic and Pathologic Factors Affecting Distribution of Drugs......Page 221
Drug Biotransformation......Page 222
Extramicrosomal......Page 223
Factors Affecting Biotransformation in the Liver......Page 224
Cardiovascular Disease......Page 225
CLINICAL PHARMACOKINETICS......Page 226
Multicompartment Distribution......Page 227
Receptor Regulation......Page 228
The Allosteric Nature of G Protein–Coupled Receptor Signaling......Page 229
REFERENCES......Page 230
FIRST-ORDER ELIMINATION......Page 232
First-Order Multicompartment Kinetics......Page 233
CLEARANCE......Page 234
SINGLE-DOSE ADMINISTRATION BY SHORT-DURATIONINFUSION......Page 235
Accumulation After Multiple Administrations of Short-Duration Infusions......Page 236
Step 4......Page 237
REFERENCES......Page 238
PLACENTAL TRANSFER......Page 239
PHARMACOKINETIC MODELS OF MATERNOFETAL DRUG EXCHANGE......Page 240
LIPID SOLUBILITY OF DRUGS......Page 241
IONIZATION OF DRUGS......Page 243
PROTEIN BINDING OF DRUGS......Page 245
MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF DRUGS......Page 247
STEREOSELECTIVITY......Page 248
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS......Page 249
REFERENCES......Page 250
CYP2D6 Oxidation Polymorphism......Page 254
CYP2C19 Oxidation Polymorphism......Page 256
PHARMACOGENETIC DEFECTS AFFECTING DRUG PHARMACODYNAMICS......Page 257
INTERACTION BETWEEN ONTOGENY AND PHARMACOGENETICS: CLINICAL PEDIATRIC PHARMACOGENETICS......Page 258
REFERENCES......Page 259
24 Drug Distribution in Fetal Life......Page 261
Structural Development of the Placenta......Page 262
Passive Transfer of Drug Across the Placenta......Page 264
Active Drug......Page 266
Active Transport of Drug Across the Placenta......Page 267
MODIFIERS OF FETAL PLASMA CONCENTRATION......Page 268
TISSUE DISTRIBUTION......Page 269
REFERENCES......Page 270
Pharmacokinetics......Page 272
Special Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Neonates: Endotracheal Epinephrine......Page 273
Pharmacodynamics......Page 274
Special Pharmacodynamic Considerations in Neonates......Page 276
REFERENCES......Page 277
GENERAL PRINCIPLES......Page 279
Pharmacology of Alcohol......Page 280
Effects of Alcohol Consumption on the Fetus and Neonate......Page 281
Cocaine......Page 283
Effects of Cocaine Use on the Fetus and Neonate......Page 284
Pharmacology of Nicotine......Page 286
Effects of Cigarette Smoking on the Fetus and Neonate......Page 287
Effects of Marijuana Use on the Fetus and Neonate......Page 288
Pharmacology of Opioids......Page 289
Effects of Opioid Use on the Fetus and Neonate......Page 290
Clinical Management of Opioid-Addicted Women and Neonates......Page 292
Pharmacology of Psychotherapeutic Drugs......Page 293
Effects of Psychotherapeutic Drugs on the Fetus and Neonate......Page 294
REFERENCES......Page 295
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 300
PRINCIPLES OF DRUG EXCRETION INTO BREAST MILK......Page 301
Transfer of Drug From the Maternal Circulation Into Breast Milk......Page 302
Estimation of the Drug Dose Delivered in Breast Milk......Page 303
Clinical Implications of Drug Excretion During Lactation......Page 304
Gold......Page 305
Recreational Chemicals......Page 306
Antimicrobial and Antiinfective Agents......Page 307
Anticonvulsants and Psychoactive Drugs......Page 308
REFERENCES......Page 309
PLACENTAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 312
Uterine Artery Blood Flow......Page 313
Fetal Hepatic and Ductus Venosus Blood Flow......Page 314
Carbohydrates......Page 315
Amino Acid Transport and Metabolism......Page 317
SUMMARY AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS......Page 318
REFERENCES......Page 319
Puberty......Page 321
GROWTH CHARTS......Page 322
Prematurity, Intrauterine Growth Restriction, and Small for Gestational Age......Page 323
DANGERS OF RAPID NEONATAL GROWTH......Page 324
GROWTH HORMONE......Page 325
INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTORS......Page 327
INSULIN......Page 328
THYROID HORMONE......Page 329
REFERENCES......Page 330
MILK COMPOSITION......Page 335
GROWTH OF BREAST-FED INFANTS......Page 337
Proteins......Page 338
Antiinflammatory Components......Page 340
LATE EFFECTS OF BREAST-FEEDING......Page 341
RECENT FINDINGS OF INTEREST......Page 342
REFERENCES......Page 343
Milk Volume and Composition During the F......Page 346
Delays in Secretory Activation......Page 348
Lipid Synthesis and Secretion......Page 349
MILK VOLUME PRODUCTION IN LACTATING WOMEN......Page 350
SUMMARY......Page 351
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 352
NUTRITIONAL INTAKE......Page 353
BODY COMPOSITION......Page 354
ANTHROPOMETRY......Page 355
Head Circumference......Page 356
Arm Muscle and Arm Fat Areas......Page 357
Thigh Circumference and Thigh-Head Circu......Page 358
Plasma Aminogram......Page 359
NUTRIENT BALANCE STUDIES......Page 360
Bone Mineralization Measurements......Page 361
REFERENCES......Page 362
Calcium-Regulating Hormones......Page 364
Cellular Calcium Metabolism......Page 365
Secretion......Page 366
PARATHYROID HORMONE–RELATED PROTEIN......Page 367
VITAMIN D......Page 368
Molecular Mechanisms of Action......Page 369
Physiologic Actions......Page 370
CALCITONIN GENE–RELATED PEPTIDE......Page 371
REFERENCES......Page 372
Mechanisms of Placental Calcium Transport......Page 376
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 , 1α-Hydroxycholecalciferol, and the Vitamin D Receptor......Page 379
Mechanisms of Placental Phosphorus Transport......Page 380
PLACENTAL TRANSPORT OF MAGNESIUM......Page 381
MINERAL TRANSFER IN DIABETIC PREGNANCIES AND IN INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION......Page 382
REFERENCES......Page 383
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF IRON METABOLISM......Page 386
Regulation of Cellular Iron Homeostasis and Iron Transport......Page 387
Regulation of Placental Iron Transport......Page 388
Fetal Iron Accretion and the Relationship of Maternal and Fetal Iron Status......Page 389
POSTNATAL IRON BALANCE......Page 390
CONSEQUENCES OF FETAL AND NEONATAL IRON DEFICIENCY......Page 391
REFERENCES......Page 393
Calcium......Page 396
Magnesium......Page 397
Parathyroid Hormone......Page 398
Phosphorus......Page 399
Magnesium......Page 400
Calcium......Page 401
Phosphorus......Page 406
Magnesium......Page 407
REFERENCES......Page 411
BIOCHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY OF ZINC......Page 416
Intracellular Zinc Metabolism......Page 417
Whole-Body Zinc Homeostasis......Page 418
Infancy......Page 419
REFERENCES......Page 420
FETAL ACQUISITION OF VITAMIN A......Page 422
Plasma Vitamin A Indices......Page 423
Vitamin A Content......Page 424
VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY......Page 425
REFERENCES......Page 426
39 Vitamin E Metabolism in the Fetus and Newborn Infant......Page 429
BRIEF HISTORY OF VITAMIN E......Page 430
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR VITAMIN E......Page 431
SOURCES AND ACTIVITY OF VITAMIN E COMPOUNDS......Page 432
ROLE OF γ-TOCOPHEROL IN HUMAN NUTRITION......Page 433
Influence of Apolipoproteins on the Distribution of Tocopherol in Plasma......Page 434
PATTERN OF PLASMA LIPIDS AND LIPOPROTEINS IN THE NEWBORN......Page 435
Differences in Fatty Acid Composition of Maternal and Fetal Plasma......Page 436
PATTERNS OF MEMBRANE TOCOPHEROL CONTENT IN THE NEWBORN AND YOUNG INFANT......Page 437
Effect of Fatty Acid Composition on Functional Requirements for Vitamin E......Page 438
ESTIMATES OF OXIDANT RISK......Page 440
The Complexity of Early Stages of Reproduction, Both Normal and Abnormal......Page 441
Diabetic Pregnancies......Page 443
Summary of Antioxidant Clinical Trials......Page 444
Unanswered Questions: Direction of Future Research......Page 445
REFERENCES......Page 446
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 449
VITAMIN K AND BLOOD COAGULATION......Page 450
FUNCTION AND METABOLISM OF VITAMIN K IN LIVER......Page 451
MATURATION OF THE VITAMIN K–DEPENDENT γ-CARBOXYLATION SYSTEM IN THE FETAL AND NEONATAL PERIODS......Page 452
REGULATION OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE VITAMIN K–DEPENDENT γ-CARBOXYLATION SYSTEM......Page 453
REFERENCES......Page 454
HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA IN PREGNANCY AND ITS ROLE IN PROVIDING FATTY ACIDS FOR THE FETUS......Page 456
MATERNAL LIPID METABOLISM AND PLACENTAL TRANSFER OF FREE FATTY ACIDS, GLYCEROL,
AND KETONE BODIES TO THE FETUS......Page 457
Glycerol......Page 459
Ketone Bodies......Page 460
Cholesterol Biosynthesis and Congenital......Page 461
Sources of Fetal Cholesterol......Page 464
REFERENCES......Page 465
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 469
Biochemical Development and Myelination......Page 470
Changes in Composition of the Brain During Development......Page 471
Placental Metabolism and Transport of Lipid......Page 472
Placental Transfer and Cord Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids......Page 473
Fatty Acid Utilization......Page 474
Human Milk......Page 475
Formula for Preterm Infants......Page 476
Physiologic Phases......Page 477
Medium- and Long-Chain Triglycerides......Page 478
Accretion......Page 479
Composition of Fat......Page 480
Parenteral Lipid Emulsions and Potential......Page 481
REFERENCES......Page 482
DEVELOPMENT OF BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE IN HUMAN INFANTS AND OTHER NEWBORNS......Page 487
THE UNCOUPLING PROTEIN UCP1 (THERMOGENIN)......Page 488
POSSIBLE SEMIACUTE REGULATION OF UCP1  ACTIVITY......Page 489
Receptors Involved......Page 490
Different Adrenergic Receptors......Page 491
Perinatal Recruitment of Lipoprotein Lipase......Page 492
Systemic Action......Page 493
REGULATION OF RECRUITMENT OF THE TISSUE......Page 494
Diseases Affecting Brown Adipose Tissue......Page 495
REFERENCES......Page 496
LIPID AS A FUEL FOR OXIDATIVE METABOLISM FOR GROWING INFANTS......Page 500
Medium-Chain Triglycerides as Fuel......Page 501
EFFECTS OF QUALITY OF ENERGY (FAT VERSUS CARBOHYDRATE)
ON PROTEIN ACCRETION
AND SUBSTRATE OXIDATION......Page 502
REFERENCES......Page 503
Ketonemia in the Neonatal Period......Page 505
Adipose Tissue Lipolysis......Page 506
Role of Malonyl Coenzyme A......Page 507
Role of Insulin and Glucagon......Page 508
Mitochondrial Pathway......Page 509
Cytosolic Pathway......Page 510
Glucose Production......Page 511
Ketone Bodies and the Embryo......Page 512
REFERENCES......Page 513
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE......Page 516
Maternal Influences on Accumulation of Arachidonic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid in the Fetus
and Infant......Page 517
Effects of Dietary Influences on Accumulation of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids......Page 518
Evidence of the Sensory Effects of n-3 Fatty Acid Deficiency......Page 519
Possible Mechanisms for Changes in Behavior With Lower Brain Docosahexaenoic Acid Accumulation......Page 520
Retinal and Visual Effects of Feeding Docosahexaenoic Acid to Preterm and Term Infants......Page 521
Docosahexaenoic Acid Effects on Language Development......Page 522
Specific Measures of Cognitive Development......Page 523
REFERENCES......Page 524
Experimental Animals......Page 528
Lipoprotein Metabolism: Humans and Experimental Animals......Page 529
Humans......Page 530
Perinatal Disease and Lipoprotein Concentrations......Page 531
REFERENCES......Page 532
IDEAL TRACER......Page 536
Quantification of the Rate of Appearance and Disappearanceof a Substrate......Page 537
Quantification of Metabolic Fate of the Substrate......Page 538
Doubly Labeled (2H218O) Water Method......Page 539
Glucose Transport Across the Placenta......Page 540
Studies in Animals......Page 541
Expression and Regulation of Gluconeogenic Enzymes......Page 542
Utilization of Other Substrates by the Fetus......Page 543
Regulation of Umbilical Glucose Uptake and Fetal Glucose Utilization......Page 544
Glucose Kinetics in the Newborn......Page 545
Regulation of Glucose Production in the Newborn......Page 546
Gluconeogenesis in the Newborn......Page 547
Very-Low-Birth-Weight Infant......Page 548
REFERENCES......Page 549
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......Page 552
EFFECT OF THE CONCEPTUS ON MATERNAL GLUCOSE AVAILABILITY......Page 553
REFERENCES......Page 554
FETAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS......Page 555
Determining Factors......Page 556
INTEGRATION OF FETAL METABOLIC RATE......Page 558
Oxygen Quotient......Page 560
Substrate Uptake: Carbohydrate......Page 561
Glucose Uptake and Utilization......Page 562
GLUCONEOGENESIS......Page 563
Fetal Hypoxemia......Page 565
Maternal Hyperglycemia......Page 566
REFERENCES......Page 567
INSULIN AND GLUCAGON INFLUENCES ON GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS......Page 570
KINETIC ANALYSES OF HORMONAL CONTROL OF GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS......Page 571
INSULIN RESISTANCE AND SENSITIVITY IN THE NEONATE......Page 573
SUBSTRATE AVAILABILITY IN THE NEONATE......Page 576
REFERENCES......Page 578
53 Pathophysiology of Hypoglycemia......Page 580
Adipose Tissue Lipolysis......Page 581
Delayed Development of Fasting Systems in Appropriate-for-Gestational-Age Term and Preterm Neonates......Page 582
Focal Katp Hyperinsulinism......Page 583
Other Conditions with Hypoglycemia Resulting From Hyperinsulinism......Page 584
SUMMARY......Page 585
REFERENCES......Page 586
MODELS FOR WHOLE-BODY AMINO ACID AND PROTEIN METABOLISM......Page 588
METHODS FOR MEASURING PROTEIN METABOLISM IN HUMANS......Page 589
End Product Approach to Measurement of Protein Metabolism......Page 590
TURNOVER OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF NITROGEN METABOLISM......Page 591
FREE, EXTRINSICALLY OR INTRINSICALLY LABELED AMINO ACIDS......Page 593
DEGRADATION OF SPECIFIC PROTEINS......Page 594
REFERENCES......Page 595
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......Page 596
INTRAUTERINE GROWTH AND PROTEIN (NITROGEN) ACCRETION......Page 597
PLACENTAL AMINO ACID SUPPLY: PLACENTAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS......Page 598
PLACENTAL AMINO ACID TRANSPORTER PROTEINS......Page 599
Neutral Amino Acid Transporter Light Chain Proteins......Page 600
Development and Growth of Amino Acid Placental Transport Capacity......Page 601
Changes in Amino Acid Transport in Intrauterine Growth Restriction......Page 602
UMBILICAL (FETAL) AMINO ACID UPTAKE......Page 603
PLACENTAL-FETAL AMINO ACID CYCLING......Page 604
FETAL AMINO ACID OXIDATION......Page 606
FETAL PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AND TURNOVER......Page 607
Hormonal/Nutrient Regulation of Protein Translation......Page 608
FETAL PROTEIN METABOLISM IN RESPONSE TO MATERNAL FASTING......Page 609
CONCLUSIONS......Page 610
REFERENCES......Page 611
Protein Synthesis......Page 615
PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS......Page 616
SPECIFIC AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS......Page 617
AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS FOR PARENTERAL NUTRITION......Page 619
Clinical Status......Page 621
Concomitant Energy Intake......Page 622
Hormones......Page 623
REFERENCES......Page 624
Pathways of Fetal Heat Dissipation......Page 627
Simulating Heat Movement in the Fetus......Page 628
Maternal Hypothermia......Page 629
Behavioral Thermoregulation......Page 630
Nonshivering Thermogenesis......Page 631
INDICATORS OF THERMOGENIC RESPONSE......Page 632
Inhibition of Thermogenesis In Utero......Page 633
CAESAREAN SECTION AND THERMOGENESIS OF THE NEWBORN......Page 634
REFERENCES......Page 635
PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGIC TEMPERATURE REGULATION......Page 637
Standard Metabolic Rate in Relation to Body Mass and Age......Page 638
Metabolic Rate in Relationship to Body Temperature......Page 639
Hypothalamus......Page 640
Integration of Multiple Thermal Inputs......Page 641
Principles Guiding the Actions of the Integrator......Page 642
SET POINT AND NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE......Page 643
Metabolic Rate and Environmental Temperature......Page 644
Modes of Extra Heat Production......Page 645
Shivering......Page 646
Behavioral Regulation......Page 647
Acclimation Versus Maturation......Page 648
Long-Term Threshold Temperature Displacement......Page 649
Stability of Deep Body (Core) Temperature During Ontogenesis......Page 650
Adjustment of Effector Threshold Temperatures......Page 651
Stage of Maturity of the Thermoregulatory System at Birth......Page 652
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome......Page 653
Mechanism of Fever......Page 655
Pathogenesis of Fever......Page 656
Acute and Chronic Hypoxia......Page 657
REFERENCES......Page 659
SUGGESTED READING......Page 661
ROUTES OF WATER EXCHANGE......Page 662
Calculation of Heat Exchange Between the Infant’s Body Surface and the Environment......Page 663
Heated Beds......Page 664
WATER AND HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN THE SKIN AND THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 665
Heat Exchange During the First Day After Birth......Page 666
Total Heat Exchange Between the Infant’s Skin and the Environment......Page 667
Water and Heat Loss From the Respiratory Tract......Page 668
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION......Page 670
REFERENCES......Page 675
AKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 676
Prolonged Cooling......Page 677
Is Neuroprotection Maintained Long Term?......Page 679
Does Hypothermia Specifically Prevent or Suppress Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)?......Page 680
SYSTEMIC EFFECTS OF HYPOTHERMIA......Page 681
REFERENCES......Page 682
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 684
Overview......Page 685
Specification......Page 686
Nonkeratinocytes in the Epidermis......Page 687
Clinical Relevance......Page 688
DERMAL-EPIDERMAL JUNCTION......Page 689
Hair......Page 690
Clinical Relevance......Page 691
REFERENCES......Page 692
62 Physiologic Development of the Skin......Page 694
The Biology of Vernix......Page 695
Water Loss, Temperature Control, and Blood Flow......Page 698
Bacterial Colonization and Skin Cleansing......Page 700
Cutaneous Immunity......Page 701
Strategies for Epidermal Barrier Maturation/Repair......Page 703
Cutaneous Receptors and Electrical Maturation......Page 705
Skin as an Information-Rich Surface......Page 706
FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 707
REFERENCES......Page 708
PRECARDIAC MESODERM AND THE AXIAL BODY PLAN......Page 711
FORMATION AND GROWTH OF THE TUBE HEART......Page 712
ATRIAL SEPTATION......Page 713
ATRIOVENTRICULAR JUNCTION SEGMENT AND ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVE DEVELOPMENT......Page 714
DEVELOPMENT OF SYSTEMIC VEINS......Page 716
REFERENCES......Page 717
ORIGIN OF ENDOTHELIAL CELLS......Page 720
The Two Mechanisms of New Blood Vessel Formation......Page 721
ANGIOGENESIS, REMODELING, AND VESSEL MATURATION......Page 722
Vascular Patterning: Not All Endothelial Cells Are Created Equal......Page 724
Epigenetic Factors Driving Vascular Development and Morphogenesis......Page 725
Hemodynamic Forces......Page 726
Hypoxia......Page 727
Development of Pulmonary Vessels......Page 728
REFERENCES......Page 732
NORMAL CARDIAC STRUCTURE......Page 735
Clinical Genetics of Dilated Cardiomyopathy......Page 737
Barth Syndrome......Page 738
AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY......Page 739
Clinical Aspects of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy......Page 740
Myosin-binding Protein C......Page 741
Thin Filament Proteins......Page 742
Pompe Disease (Type II Glycogen Storage Disease)......Page 743
Mitochondrial Cardiomyopathies......Page 744
Genetics......Page 745
CONCLUSION......Page 746
REFERENCES......Page 747
CARDIAC ACTION POTENTIAL......Page 751
Resting Membrane Potential......Page 756
Phase 1 of the Action Potential......Page 757
Action Potential Plateau and Repolarization, Phases 2 and 3......Page 758
Conduction of the Impulse From Sinus Node to Atrioventricular Node......Page 760
Atrioventricular Conduction Before the Formation of the Specialized Atrioventricular Conduction System......Page 761
Formation of the Specialized Atrioventricular ConductionSystem......Page 763
Parasympathetic Nervous System......Page 765
Sympathetic Nervous System......Page 767
REFERENCES......Page 771
MORPHOLOGY OF THE DEVELOPING PULMONARY CIRCULATION IN THE FETUS......Page 775
Microscopic Features......Page 776
Cellular Mechanisms......Page 777
ABNORMAL LUNG GROWTH......Page 780
In Utero......Page 781
ALTERED POSTNATAL PULMONARY VASCULAR DEVELOPMENT......Page 783
EXPERIMENTAL PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PULMONARY HYPERTENSION......Page 784
DECREASED GROWTH OF THE PULMONARY VASCULARBED......Page 786
REFERENCES......Page 788
VENOUS DRAINAGE OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT......Page 791
Cardiovascular Function......Page 792
Role of Nitric Oxide......Page 793
REFERENCES......Page 794
HOW CONGENITAL HEART LESIONS ALTER THE CLINICAL PHENOTYPEOF THE NEONATE......Page 796
PHYSIOLOGY OF SHUNTING AND SINGLE-VENTRICLE PHYSIOLOGY......Page 797
Left-to-Right Shunting at the Atrial Level......Page 798
Bidirectional Shunting......Page 799
Single-Ventricle Physiology......Page 801
Adequate Capacity to Pump Blood to the Lungs and Body......Page 803
Effect of Decreased Afterload on Cardiovascular Physiology......Page 804
All Systemic Venous Blood Passes Through the Lungs Before Being Pumped to the Systemic Circulation......Page 805
REFERENCES......Page 806
THE ARTERIAL BAROREFLEX......Page 809
Resetting the Arterial Baroreflex......Page 810
The Cardiopulmonary Reflex......Page 811
Sympathetic Activity at Birth......Page 812
Angiotensin II......Page 813
Conclusion......Page 814
REFERENCES......Page 815
EPIDEMIOLOGIC OBSERVATIONS......Page 819
Timing......Page 820
FETAL ADAPTIVE RESPONSES......Page 821
Prenatal and Postnatal Environmental Mismatch......Page 822
THE TRANSDUCTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI......Page 823
MECHANISMS......Page 824
REFERENCES......Page 825
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......Page 828
72 Physiology of Nitric Oxide in the Developing Lung......Page 829
NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASES IN THE DEVELOPING LUNG......Page 830
EXOGENOUS (INHALED) NITRIC OXIDE AS A SELECTIVE PULMONARY VASODILATOR......Page 831
CLINICAL EFFECTS OF INHALED NITRIC OXIDE IN THE TERM NEWBORN WITH PERSISTENT PULMONARYHYPERTENSION OF THE NEWBORN......Page 835
INHALED NITRIC OXIDE IN PREMATURE NEWBORNS......Page 838
REFERENCES......Page 840
Balance Between Vasoconstriction and Vasorelaxation......Page 843
Anatomic Closure—Histologic Changes......Page 844
Relationship Between Vasoconstriction and Anatomic Closure......Page 845
HEMODYNAMIC AND PULMONARY ALTERATIONS......Page 846
REFERENCES......Page 847
ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN UMBILICOPLACENTAL CIRCULATION......Page 850
Mean Blood Flow......Page 851
Perfused Placenta in Vitro......Page 852
IMPORTANCE OF UMBILICAL BLOOD FLOW REGULATION......Page 853
Closure of Umbilicoplacental Circulation at Birth......Page 854
UMBILICAL BLOOD FLOW IN INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION......Page 855
REFERENCES......Page 857
PHYSIOLOGIC BACKGROUND......Page 861
Physical Principle......Page 862
Velocity Waveform Analysis......Page 863
SAFETY ASPECTS OF USING DOPPLER ULTRASOUND IN PREGNANCIES......Page 864
Umbilical Artery Blood Flow......Page 865
Fetal Venous Blood Flow......Page 866
FETAL ELECTROCARDIOGRAM IN LABOR......Page 867
REFERENCES......Page 868
BASIC PHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES......Page 870
Heart Rate......Page 871
METABOLIC CHANGES......Page 872
REGULATION OF BREATHING......Page 873
Systemic Blood Flow and Myocardial Function......Page 874
CEREBRAL ELECTROPHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES......Page 875
REFERENCES......Page 876
Oxygen Delivery, Oxygen Consumption, and Oxygen Extraction in the Fetus......Page 878
Cardiovascular Effects of Fetal Hypoxemia......Page 879
Reactive Oxygen Species......Page 880
Cardiac Output......Page 881
Hypovolemia......Page 882
Pressor-Resistant Systemic Hypotension in Neonates......Page 883
Hemodynamic Effects......Page 884
REFERENCES......Page 885
Embryonic Stage (3 to 7 Weeks After Conception)......Page 889
Molecular Mechanisms Regulating Early Lung Development......Page 890
Molecular Mechanisms Regulating Branching Morphogenesis......Page 892
Molecular Mechanisms Regulating Vascular Development......Page 893
Saccular Stage (24 to 38 Weeks After Conception)......Page 894
Molecular Mechanisms Regulating Alveolar Development......Page 895
Tracheal Agenesis, Tracheal Stenosis, and Tracheomalacia......Page 896
Congenital Bronchogenic Cysts......Page 897
Congenital Cysts of the Lung......Page 898
REFERENCES......Page 899
STRUCTURE OF THE ALVEOLAR WALL......Page 903
Canalicular Phase......Page 904
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor......Page 905
Retinoic Acid......Page 906
Oxygen......Page 907
REFERENCES......Page 908
FETAL LUNG GROWTH......Page 911
Effects of Reduced Lung Expansion......Page 912
THE ROLE OF FETAL BREATHING MOVEMENTS......Page 913
MECHANOTRANSDUCTION MECHANISMS AFFECTINGGROWTH AND DIFFERENTIATION......Page 914
EFFECTS OF CORTICOSTEROIDS ON GROWTH AND MATURATION OF THE FETAL LUNG......Page 915
POSTNATAL LUNG GROWTH......Page 916
THE ROLE OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT......Page 917
Fetal Treatments......Page 918
REFERENCES......Page 919
MOLECULAR BASIS OF LUNG BUD AND LOBE FORMATION......Page 922
SEPARATING ESOPHAGUS AND TRACHEA......Page 924
BRANCHING MORPHOGENESIS......Page 925
EPITHELIAL DIFFERENTIATION......Page 927
VASCULAR DEVELOPMENT......Page 928
REFERENCES......Page 929
Liquid Secretion......Page 933
BASIC MECHANISMS OF TRANSEPITHELIAL ION TRANSPORT......Page 934
Sodium, Potassium, Chloride Cotransporter......Page 935
Knockout Models of Sodium Transport......Page 936
Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate–Mediated Liquid Transport......Page 937
REGULATION OF ION TRANSPORT BY OXYGEN......Page 938
Airway Ion Transport Studies......Page 940
Chloride Secretion......Page 941
REFERENCES......Page 942
Airway Structure......Page 946
Mechanics and Regulation of the Developing Airway......Page 947
Effects of Mechanical Ventilation on Airway Function......Page 949
Measurements of Airway Function During Tidal Breathing......Page 951
Radiographic Evaluation of Airway Injury......Page 952
Endoscopic Evaluation of Airway Injury......Page 953
REFERENCES......Page 954
Airway-Related Vagal Preganglionic Neurons: Cholinergic Control of Lower Airways......Page 957
Muscarinic Receptor Signaling......Page 958
Sympathetic Control of Lower Airways......Page 959
Nonadrenergic Noncholinergic Control of the Lower Airways......Page 960
Neurotrophins and Lung Injury......Page 962
REFERENCES......Page 963
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 964
Embryologic Derivation and Innervation of the Diaphragm Muscle Myogenesis......Page 965
Myosin Heavy Chain......Page 967
Innervation......Page 968
Association of Contractile Properties with Fiber Type and MHC Isoform Expression......Page 973
MHC Isoform Expression and Cross-Bridge Cycling Kinetics in Single Muscle Fibers......Page 974
Functional Implications of Developmental Changes in Mechanical Performance of the DIAm......Page 975
REFERENCES......Page 978
Passive Respiratory Mechanics During Artificial Ventilation......Page 981
Compliance......Page 982
Time Constant and Resistance......Page 983
Mechanics of Chest Wall Distortion......Page 984
ASPECTS OF THE ENERGETICS OF BREATHING......Page 985
REFERENCES......Page 987
Oxygen Gradient......Page 988
Carbon Dioxide Gradient......Page 990
Assumptions About Assessment of Ventilation and Perfusion......Page 991
Effects of Increased Pulmonary Arterial Pressure......Page 992
Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction and˙VA/˙Q Matching......Page 993
Vasoactive Mediators Influencing Pulmonary Vascular Resistance and˙VA/˙Q Matching......Page 994
DIFFUSION AND PULMONARY GAS EXCHANGE......Page 995
IMPAIRED GAS EXCHANGE IN BRONCHOPULMONARYDYSPLASIA......Page 996
REFERENCES......Page 997
OXYGEN TRANSPORT SYSTEM......Page 999
STRUCTURE OF THE HEMOGLOBIN MOLECULE......Page 1000
HEMOGLOBIN-OXYGEN INTERACTIONS......Page 1001
EFFECT OF ERYTHROCYTE 2, 3-DIPHOSPHOGLYCERATE ON BLOOD OXYGEN AFFINITY OF HEMOGLOBIN......Page 1002
Fetal Blood Oxygen Delivery......Page 1003
Effect of 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate on Fetal Hemoglobin Oxygen Affinity......Page 1004
Postnatal Changes in Oxygen Transport......Page 1005
Hypoxemia......Page 1006
Exchange Transfusions......Page 1007
REFERENCES......Page 1008
Fetal State......Page 1009
Modulation of Fetal Breathing by Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen, Pulmonary Reflexes, and Pharmacologic Agents......Page 1011
Establishment of Continuous Breathing at Birth......Page 1012
Breathing Pattern at Rest......Page 1014
Periodic Breathing and Apnea......Page 1015
Chemical Regulation......Page 1017
Pulmonary Reflexes......Page 1018
REFERENCES......Page 1019
90 Basic Mechanisms of Oxygen Sensing and Response to Hypoxia......Page 1022
Sodium Ionic Flux and Its Regulation: Short Versus Long Exposures......Page 1023
OXYGEN SENSING VIA GENE REGULATION: LONGER PERIODS......Page 1025
REFERENCES......Page 1027
Definition......Page 1029
Physiologic Effects......Page 1030
Epidemiology......Page 1032
Influence of Chemoreceptor and Mechanoreceptor Responses......Page 1033
Differential Responses of Upper Airway and Chest Wall Muscles......Page 1035
Upper Airway Reflexes......Page 1036
Pharmacologic Agents......Page 1037
Body Position and Exposure to Smoking......Page 1038
Initiation of Apnea......Page 1039
REFERENCES......Page 1040
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......Page 1042
PHYSIOLOGIC BACKGROUND......Page 1043
Pneumotachometers......Page 1044
Functional Residual Capacity Measurement by Plethysmography......Page 1045
Technical Limitations......Page 1046
Functional Residual Capacity Measurement by Nitrogen Washout......Page 1047
Compliance......Page 1048
Multiple Occlusion Technique......Page 1049
NORMAL VALUES......Page 1050
Volume-Pressure Loops......Page 1051
REFERENCES......Page 1054
PATHOLOGY......Page 1058
PERSISTENT FETAL VASCULAR PATHWAYS......Page 1059
Intrapulmonary Shunting......Page 1060
Mechanical Properties of the Lung......Page 1061
Ventilation......Page 1062
Distending Airway Pressure......Page 1063
Mechanical Ventilation......Page 1064
REFERENCES......Page 1065
Mechanical Lung Injury at Birth......Page 1067
Lung Water, Patent Ductus Contribute to Mechanical Lung Injury......Page 1068
Neonatal Pulmonary Inflammatory Responses......Page 1069
Deficiency of Antioxidant Defenses in Prematurity......Page 1070
REFERENCES......Page 1071
STRUCTURE OF THE PREMATURE LUNG......Page 1073
CHRONIC LUNG DISEASE OF PREMATURITY......Page 1076
Impaired Alveolar Formation After Injury in PrematureLung......Page 1077
SUMMARY......Page 1078
REFERENCES......Page 1079
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 1081
CHORIOAMNIONITIS......Page 1082
CHORIOAMNIONITIS AND FETAL LUNG INJURY......Page 1083
CYTOKINES AND ALTERED LUNG DEVELOPMENT......Page 1084
ANTENATAL INFECTION AND VASCULAR INJURY......Page 1085
IMMUNOLOGIC RESPONSES AFTER FETAL LUNG INFLAMMATION......Page 1086
INTERACTIONS OF ANTENATAL GLUCOCORTICOIDS AND INFLAMMATION......Page 1087
REFERENCES......Page 1088
97 Pathophysiology of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia......Page 1090
Lung Function in Early Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia......Page 1092
Airway Resistance......Page 1093
Metabolic Rate......Page 1094
Pulmonary Hypertension—Cor Pulmonale......Page 1095
REFERENCES......Page 1096
Perfluorochemical Liquids......Page 1099
Pulmonary Structure and Function......Page 1101
Pulmonary Mechanics......Page 1102
Gas Exchange......Page 1103
EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL TECHNIQUES FOR LIQUID-ASSISTED VENTILATION......Page 1104
Biochemical Findings......Page 1106
Histologic and Morphologic Findings......Page 1107
Cellular Findings......Page 1108
Respiratory Distress......Page 1109
Pulmonary Hypoplasia......Page 1110
Use of Perfluorochemicals in Infants With Respiratory Distress Syndrome......Page 1111
Drug and Tracer Delivery......Page 1113
REFERENCES......Page 1114
99 Historical Perspective......Page 1118
REFERENCES......Page 1119
Surfactant Proteins......Page 1121
Therapeutic Surfactants......Page 1122
SURFACE TENSION AND LUNG MECHANICS......Page 1123
SURFACE TENSION......Page 1124
REDUCTION OF SURFACE TENSION BY PULMONARY SURFACTANT......Page 1126
ROLE OF SURFACTANT IN ALVEOLAR STABILITY......Page 1129
ROLE OF SURFACTANT-ASSOCIATED PROTEINS IN THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL FUNCTIONS OF PULMONARY SURFACTANT......Page 1130
Phospholipid Adsorption With Surfactant Proteins......Page 1131
Squeeze-Out......Page 1132
Adsorption Reservoirs......Page 1133
Phase Transitions and the Classical Model......Page 1135
SURFACTANT INACTIVATION......Page 1136
REFERENCES......Page 1137
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 1141
IN UTERO DEVELOPMENT OF THE ALVEOLAR EPITHELIUM......Page 1142
INTRACELLULAR METABOLISM OF SURFACTANT......Page 1144
BIRTH AND THE TRANSITION TO AIR BREATHING......Page 1145
THE SECRETORY EVENT......Page 1146
POSTNATAL MATURATION......Page 1147
REFERENCES......Page 1148
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 1149
PATHWAYS IN THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS AND FATTY ACIDS......Page 1150
Normal Development......Page 1152
Glucocorticoids......Page 1153
Thyroid Hormone......Page 1154
Other Hormones and Growth Factors......Page 1155
MECHANISM OF REGULATION OF FETAL LUNG PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE BIOSYNTHESIS......Page 1156
SECRETION OF SURFACTANT-ASSOCIATED PHOSPHOLIPIDS......Page 1157
REFERENCES......Page 1160
ISOLATION OF PULMONARY SURFACTANT......Page 1165
LIPID COMPONENTS......Page 1167
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN PHOSPHOLIPID COMPOSITION......Page 1168
Functions of Surfactant Protein A......Page 1169
Regulation of Surfactant Protein D......Page 1170
Surfactant Protein B Is Required for Lung Function at Birth: Hereditary SP-B Deficiency......Page 1171
Role of Surfactant Proteins in Surfactant Replacement Preparations......Page 1172
REFERENCES......Page 1173
Composition......Page 1175
Surfactant Pool Size......Page 1176
Changes in Surfactant Pool Size After Birth......Page 1177
Surfactant Metabolism in the Preterm......Page 1178
Lung Injury With Mechanical Ventilation......Page 1181
Surfactant Inactivation......Page 1182
Surfactant Function With Surfactant Treatment......Page 1185
A Model for the Initial Events in Respiratory Distress Syndrome......Page 1186
REFERENCES......Page 1187
BIOLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS......Page 1189
CLINICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ANTENATAL GLUCOCORTICOID THERAPY......Page 1190
Effect of Antenatal Glucocorticoids on Complications Associated With Premature Birth......Page 1191
REPEATED COURSES OF ANTENATAL GLUCOCORTICOIDS......Page 1192
DEXAMETHASONE-SPECIFIC TOXICITY......Page 1193
REFERENCES......Page 1194
106 Surfactant Treatment......Page 1196
PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS OF SURFACTANT TREATM......Page 1197
OXYGENATION RESPONSE TO SURFACTANT......Page 1198
CLINICAL TRIALS OF SURFACTANT FOR  RESPI......Page 1199
TIMING OF SURFACTANT TREATMENT......Page 1200
COMPLICATIONS OF SURFACTANT TREATMENT......Page 1201
ADMINISTRATION OF SURFACTANT......Page 1202
VARIABLES THAT INFLUENCE SURFACTANT  DIS......Page 1203
SURFACTANT-MATERNAL CORTICOSTEROID  INTE......Page 1204
THE CHOICE OF SURFACTANTS FOR THE TREATM......Page 1205
REFERENCES......Page 1206
MOLECULAR GENETICS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY......Page 1208
OTHER SURFACTANT PROTEIN B GENE VARIANTS......Page 1210
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE–BINDING CASSETTE......Page 1211
SFTPC MUTATIONS AND LUNG DISEASE......Page 1212
LUNG PATHOLOGIC FINDINGS OF INBORN ERROR......Page 1214
TREATMENT......Page 1216
SUMMARY......Page 1217
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 1220
Nature of Growth......Page 1221
Enteral Versus Parenteral......Page 1222
Macronutrients......Page 1223
Tissue Growth Factors......Page 1224
REFERENCES......Page 1225
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 1227
Organogenesis......Page 1229
Organogenesis......Page 1230
Organogenesis......Page 1231
Organogenesis......Page 1232
Anomalies of Embryogenesis......Page 1234
Organogenesis......Page 1236
Anomalies of Embryogenesis......Page 1237
Central Nervous System......Page 1238
Central Nervous System......Page 1239
Enteric Nervous System......Page 1240
Neurotransmitters......Page 1241
Hirschsprung Disease......Page 1242
Development of Intestinal Motility......Page 1243
REFERENCES......Page 1244
ORGANOGENESIS AND CELL DIFFERENTIATION......Page 1247
REGULATION OF ACID SECRETION IN ADULTS......Page 1248
MECHANISMS FOR DIMINISHED PARIETAL CELL......Page 1249
G-CELL FUNCTION......Page 1250
CHIEF CELL FUNCTION......Page 1252
REFERENCES......Page 1253
Oral Phase of Swallowing......Page 1255
Coordination of Swallowing With Breathin......Page 1256
Sphincteric Mechanisms of Gastroesophage......Page 1258
Gastric Emptying in Neonates......Page 1261
Coordination of Small-Intestinal Contrac......Page 1262
Ontogeny of Coordinated Small-Bowel Cont......Page 1263
COLONIC AND ANORECTAL MOTILITY......Page 1264
Anorectum......Page 1265
REFERENCES......Page 1267
GASTRIC MOTOR FUNCTION......Page 1271
SMALL INTESTINE......Page 1272
REFERENCES......Page 1273
ONTOGENY OF NONHUMAN PANCREAS......Page 1274
ONTOGENY OF SECRETORY FUNCTION IN THE HU......Page 1276
ONTOGENY OF RODENT EXOCRINE PANCREATIC S......Page 1277
REGULATORY FACTORS......Page 1278
FETAL ANTIGENS......Page 1279
REFERENCES......Page 1280
General......Page 1284
Pancreatic Proteolytic activity......Page 1285
Proteolytic and PePtidase activity......Page 1286
Carbohydrate Digestion......Page 1287
Clinical Correlations......Page 1288
Emulsification, Hydrolysis, and Micelle......Page 1289
Prenatal Period......Page 1290
Clinical Correlations......Page 1291
REFERENCES......Page 1292
High-Pressure Zone......Page 1294
Crural Diaphragm......Page 1295
Transient Relaxation of the High-Pressur......Page 1296
Spontaneous Free Gastroesophageal Reflux......Page 1297
REFERENCES......Page 1299
Host Defense......Page 1301
Intestinal Blood Flow Regulation......Page 1302
FINAL COMMON PATHWAY: THE INFLAMMATORY C......Page 1303
REFERENCES......Page 1304
SPECIFIC INTERACTIONS PROMOTING  HEPATOG......Page 1307
BILIARY DUCT DEVELOPMENT......Page 1308
REGULATION OF FETAL LIVER GROWTH AND MAT......Page 1309
REFERENCES......Page 1310
119 Bile Acid Metabolism During Development......Page 1312
BILE ACID CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND PROPERT......Page 1313
Classical Pathway......Page 1314
Basolateral......Page 1315
Role of Cholangiocytes......Page 1316
Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth Leads to......Page 1318
Pool Size......Page 1319
Placental Bile Acid Transport......Page 1320
Progressive Familial Intrahepatic Choles......Page 1322
REFERENCES......Page 1323
ANATOMY OF THE LIVER......Page 1327
MICROARCHITECTURE......Page 1328
Bile Composition......Page 1329
Enterohepatic Circulation of Bile Acids......Page 1330
NTCP......Page 1331
Organic Anion Transporting Peptide Famil......Page 1332
CHOLESTATIC DISORDERS......Page 1333
Sepsis-Associated Cholestasis......Page 1334
Parenteral Nutrition–Associated Liver Di......Page 1335
REFERENCES......Page 1336
TRANSPORT, CONJUGATION, AND EXCRETION OF......Page 1339
GENETIC VARIATIONS IN BILIRUBIN CONJUGAT......Page 1340
HEPATIC AND ENTERIC EXCRETION OF BILIRUB......Page 1341
REFERENCES......Page 1342
KERNICTERUS: WHAT IT IS AND WHAT IT IS N......Page 1343
THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER AND BILIRUBIN-BR......Page 1344
INHIBITION-UNCOUPLING OF OXIDATIVE  PHOS......Page 1346
NEUROTRANSMITTER METABOLISM......Page 1347
APOPTOSIS AND NECROSIS......Page 1348
PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION......Page 1349
IMPLICATIONS OF BILIRUBIN NEUROSCIENCE F......Page 1350
REFERENCES......Page 1351
FORMATION OF THE METANEPHROS......Page 1355
RENAL ARCHITECTONICS......Page 1356
URETERIC BUD OUTGROWTH......Page 1358
EXPANSION AND SURVIVAL OF RENAL STEM CEL......Page 1359
DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEPHRON......Page 1360
THE STROMA IN KIDNEY DEVELOPMENT......Page 1361
REFERENCES......Page 1362
Renal Blood Flow......Page 1364
Glomerular Filtration Rate......Page 1365
Sodium......Page 1366
Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System......Page 1367
Cortisol......Page 1368
REFERENCES......Page 1369
Total Renal Blood Flow......Page 1371
Role of Anatomic Development......Page 1372
Angiotensin II......Page 1373
Endothelin......Page 1374
Prostaglandins......Page 1375
CONCLUSION......Page 1376
Angiotensinogen......Page 1379
Renin......Page 1380
Angiotensin-converting Enzyme......Page 1381
Angiotensin II Receptors......Page 1382
Blood Pressure Control......Page 1383
Renal Hemodynamics......Page 1384
Angiotensin II as a Growth Factor......Page 1385
SUMMARY......Page 1386
PHYSIOLOGY OF GLOMERULAR FILTRATION......Page 1389
Inulin......Page 1391
Iothalamate Sodium......Page 1392
Constant Infusion of Inulin Without Urin......Page 1393
Glomerular Filtration Rate at Birth......Page 1394
Maturation of Glomerular Filtration Rate......Page 1395
Determinants of the Postnatal Increase i......Page 1396
REFERENCES......Page 1397
FRACTIONAL EXCRETION OF SODIUM DURING DE......Page 1400
CLEARANCE STUDIES IN THE NEONATE......Page 1402
Passive Transport During Development......Page 1403
SODIUM, POTASSIUM–ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATA......Page 1404
Sodium Bicarbonate Cotransporter (NBC)......Page 1405
DISTAL TUBULE......Page 1406
REGULATORY SYSTEMS......Page 1407
Studies in the Neonate......Page 1408
Catecholamines......Page 1409
SUMMARY......Page 1410
POTASSIUM HOMEOSTASIS......Page 1413
REGULATION OF INTERNAL POTASSIUM BALANCE......Page 1414
Acid-Base Balance......Page 1415
Renal Contribution......Page 1416
Sites of Potassium Transport Along the N......Page 1417
Distal Sodium Delivery and Transepitheli......Page 1418
Acid-Base Balance......Page 1419
REFERENCES......Page 1420
Transcellular Calcium Transport......Page 1422
Calcium Buffering Within the Cell......Page 1423
Parathyroid Hormone......Page 1424
Hypercalcemia......Page 1425
Nitric Oxide......Page 1426
Phosphate Reabsorption and the Transport......Page 1427
Sodium-Phosphate Transporters......Page 1428
Thyroid Hormone......Page 1429
Phosphatonins......Page 1430
REFERENCES......Page 1431
GENERAL FEATURES......Page 1436
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS......Page 1437
REFERENCES......Page 1440
ORGANIC ACID TRANSPORT......Page 1441
URIC ACID TRANSPORT......Page 1443
REFERENCES......Page 1444
Development of the Medullary Gradient......Page 1446
Role of Short-Loop Nephrons and Urea......Page 1448
Role of the Renal Pelvis......Page 1451
Role of Aquaporins......Page 1452
Maturation of Fetal Water Reabsorption......Page 1454
Endogenous Vasopressin......Page 1455
Aquaporins......Page 1456
Fluid Transport in Collecting Tubules......Page 1457
Response to Vasopressin......Page 1458
Aquaporins......Page 1459
Prostaglandins......Page 1460
Loops of Henle of Short Nephrons......Page 1462
Renal Inner Medullary Tubule Organizatio......Page 1464
Renal Pelvis......Page 1465
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE URINARY DILUTING  MECH......Page 1466
Urinary Dilution in the Neonate......Page 1468
REFERENCES......Page 1469
TUBULAR REABSORPTION OF FILTERED  BICARB......Page 1473
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF URINARY EXCRETI......Page 1474
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF BICARBONATE  RE......Page 1475
REFERENCES......Page 1476
Renal Hemodynamics......Page 1477
Unilateral Multicystic Kidney and Renal......Page 1478
Progression of Renal Insufficiency......Page 1479
REFERENCES......Page 1480
136 Pathophysiology of Acute Renal Failure in the Neonatal Period......Page 1483
PLASMA FLOW RATE......Page 1484
GLOMERULAR TRANSCAPILLARY HYDRAULIC PRES......Page 1485
GLOMERULAR CAPILLARY ULTRAFILTRATION COE......Page 1488
REFERENCES......Page 1489
Total Body Water......Page 1491
Lymph and Lymph Flow......Page 1492
Amniotic Fluid Volume......Page 1493
Red Cell Mass......Page 1494
Fluid Distribution Between Intravascular......Page 1495
Effects of Placental Transfusion......Page 1496
REFERENCES......Page 1497
Indicator Dilution Method......Page 1500
Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis, Single......Page 1501
Intracellular Water......Page 1502
POSTNATAL CHANGES IN BODY FLUID COMPARTM......Page 1503
REFERENCES......Page 1504
TRANSVASCULAR FLUID FILTRATION......Page 1506
SPECIFIC CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS: CHANGE......Page 1508
PROPOSED MECHANISMS OF EDEMA FORMATION I......Page 1509
RESPIRATORY COMPENSATORY MECHANISM......Page 1510
RESPIRATORY COMPENSATORY MECHANISM......Page 1511
REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE IN THE N......Page 1512
Neonatal Metabolic Acidosis......Page 1513
REFERENCES......Page 1514
DEFINITION OF STEM CELLS AND STEM CELL......Page 1515
Maintenance of Self-Renewal......Page 1516
Potential Uses......Page 1517
Characterization......Page 1518
Isolation......Page 1519
Therapy for Human Clinical Disorders......Page 1520
Hepatic Stem Cells......Page 1521
Other Epithelial Stem Cells......Page 1522
REFERENCES......Page 1523
Hematopoietic Stem Cells......Page 1525
Ontogeny of Hematopoiesis......Page 1526
Bone Marrow......Page 1527
Lineage-Specific Factors......Page 1528
Cytokine Receptor Families......Page 1529
Soluble Growth Factors and Growth Factor......Page 1531
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION......Page 1532
JAK Protein Tyrosine Kinases......Page 1533
Set of Signaling Molecules Determines Sp......Page 1534
Balance of Contradictory Signals Determi......Page 1535
Placental Production of Hematopoietic Gr......Page 1536
Effects of Hematopoietic Growth Factors......Page 1537
REFERENCES......Page 1538
FETAL HEMATOPOIETIC MICROENVIRONMENT......Page 1542
NEUTROPHIL MITOTIC AND MATURATION  COMPA......Page 1543
CIRCULATING AND MARGINATED BLOOD  NEUTRO......Page 1544
NEUTROPHIL ANTIGENS IN THE FETUS......Page 1545
ACCELERATING NEUTROPHIL PRODUCTION IN TH......Page 1548
REFERENCES......Page 1549
Marrow, Liver, and Blood Differential Co......Page 1552
Erythroid Growth Factors......Page 1553
Control of Erythropoietin Production......Page 1555
Hemoglobin......Page 1556
Fetomaternal Red Blood Cell Transfer......Page 1557
Globin Genes......Page 1558
Globin Chain Synthesis......Page 1559
Hemoglobin Production......Page 1560
Glycolysis......Page 1561
Embden-Meyerhof Pathway......Page 1562
Pentose Phosphate Pathway......Page 1563
Shape and Deformability......Page 1564
Oxygen Transport......Page 1565
CharaCteristiCs......Page 1567
CliniCal trials......Page 1569
side effeCts of treatment......Page 1571
late anemia of rh disease......Page 1572
REFERENCES......Page 1573
BACKGROUND......Page 1578
Megakaryocyte Progenitors......Page 1579
Megakaryocytes......Page 1580
Cytokine Effects on Megakaryocytopoiesis......Page 1581
Fetal Megakaryocyte Progenitors......Page 1583
Fetal and Neonatal Megakaryocytes......Page 1584
Thrombopoietin in Neonates......Page 1585
Platelet Counts......Page 1587
Immune-mediated Thrombocytopenia......Page 1588
Genetic Causes of Thrombocytopenia......Page 1589
Necrotizing Enterocolitis......Page 1590
REFERENCES......Page 1591
Coagulant Proteins......Page 1596
Regulation of Thrombin......Page 1597
THE FIBRINOLYTIC SYSTEM......Page 1600
Megakaryocytes......Page 1601
BLOOD VESSEL WALL......Page 1602
REFERENCES......Page 1603
Anticoagulant Properties......Page 1606
Procoagulant Properties......Page 1607
Adhesion......Page 1608
SUMMARY......Page 1609
REFERENCES......Page 1610
THE COMPONENTS OF INNATE HOST DEFENSE......Page 1612
Neutrophils......Page 1613
Mast Cells......Page 1614
Complement......Page 1615
Collectins......Page 1616
T Lymphocytes......Page 1617
InterleukIn-8......Page 1618
Colony-stimulating Factors......Page 1619
REFERENCES......Page 1620
Candida Virulence Factors and Surface Ho......Page 1626
Role of Phagocytes in Protection Against......Page 1627
REFERENCES......Page 1628
Herpesvirus Biology......Page 1630
INNATE ANTIVIRAL IMMUNITY......Page 1631
Pattern Recognition Receptors......Page 1632
Interferons......Page 1633
Interfering With Interferons......Page 1634
Interleukin-1 and Interleukin-18......Page 1635
Interleukin-2 and Interleukin-15......Page 1636
Dendritic Cells......Page 1637
Natural Killer Cells......Page 1638
Antiviral T Cell Immunity: An Overview......Page 1640
T Cell Activation and T1/T2 Differentiat......Page 1641
CD154/CD40 Interactions......Page 1642
CD8 T Cell–Mediated Antiviral Immunity......Page 1644
Viral Inhibition of Antigen Presentation......Page 1645
CD28/CD80–86 Co-Stimulation......Page 1646
γδ T Cells......Page 1647
B Cells, Antibody, Antibody-Dependent Ce......Page 1648
REFERENCES......Page 1649
COMMITMENT TO THE T-CELL LINEAGE......Page 1656
Generation of Antigen Receptors......Page 1657
Expression of Other T Lineage–Specific M......Page 1659
T-Cell Phenotypes and Antigen Receptors......Page 1660
Postnatal Development of Memory T Cells......Page 1661
REFERENCES......Page 1662
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......Page 1663
POSTMARROW B-CELL DEVELOPMENT......Page 1664
CYTOKINES AND CHEMOKINES IN B-CELL DEVEL......Page 1666
BAFF/APRIL......Page 1667
REFERENCES......Page 1668
Kinetics of Peripheral Blood Monocytes......Page 1670
Fetal Period......Page 1671
Cell Surface Receptors......Page 1672
Monocyte Metabolism......Page 1675
Biosynthesis of other Secreted Products......Page 1676
Adherence......Page 1677
Endocytosis......Page 1678
Microbicidal Activity......Page 1679
Antigen Processing and Presentation......Page 1680
Mononuclear Phagocyte Activation......Page 1681
Monocyte Function in the Fetus and Prete......Page 1682
REFERENCES......Page 1683
CYTOSKELETON......Page 1688
ADHERENCE......Page 1689
DEFORMABILITY......Page 1690
CHEMOTAXIS......Page 1691
PHAGOCYTOSIS......Page 1692
DEGRANULATION......Page 1693
Oxidative Microbicidal Activity......Page 1694
ANTIBODY-DEPENDENT CELLULAR CYTOTOXICITY......Page 1696
REFERENCES......Page 1697
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 1699
The Classical Pathway......Page 1700
The Lectin Pathway......Page 1701
Activation of C5 and Formation of the Me......Page 1702
Control of the Alternative Pathway......Page 1703
C3a and C5a......Page 1704
Bound C3 Fragments and Their Receptors......Page 1705
Bacteria......Page 1706
COMPLEMENT GENES AND THEIR ORGANIZATION......Page 1707
COMPLEMENT IN MATERNAL-FETAL MEDICINE......Page 1708
REFERENCES......Page 1709
tumor necrosIs Factor receptors......Page 1712
Interleukin-1......Page 1713
Interleukin-6......Page 1714
Interleukin-8 and Chemokines......Page 1715
Interleukin-12......Page 1716
Interleukin-10......Page 1717
InterleukIn-4 and InterleukIn-13 recepto......Page 1718
Inflammation......Page 1719
Coagulation......Page 1720
Inflammatory Diseases......Page 1721
Interleukin-1......Page 1722
Chorioamnionitis and Brain Injury......Page 1723
Bacterial Sepsis......Page 1724
Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia......Page 1725
REFERENCES......Page 1726
157 Integrins and Cell Adhesion Molecules......Page 1732
Integrin Structure......Page 1733
INTEGRIN FUNCTION: ADDITIONAL LEVELS OF......Page 1735
β2 Integrins......Page 1737
Immunoglobulin Gene Superfamily......Page 1738
Selectins......Page 1739
LEUKOCYTE, PLATELET, AND ENDOTHELIAL  AC......Page 1740
Leukocyte Localization in Adaptive Immun......Page 1741
Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency I......Page 1743
Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency II......Page 1744
β2 Integrin Function......Page 1745
Neonatal Selectin Function......Page 1746
Adhesion Molecules as Markers of Inflamm......Page 1747
REFERENCES......Page 1748
Antibodies......Page 1751
Lactadherin......Page 1753
Neutrophils and Macrophages......Page 1754
Cytokines......Page 1755
IMMUNE SYSTEM IN HUMAN MILK AND THE RECI......Page 1756
CONCLUSION......Page 1757
REFERENCES......Page 1758
EMBRYOGENESIS AND EARLY FORMATION OF THE......Page 1763
NEURULATION AND FORMATION OF THE SPINAL......Page 1765
Cranioraschisis and Anencephaly......Page 1766
Myelomeningocele......Page 1767
Disorders of Neural Crest–Derived Cells......Page 1768
Holoprosencephaly......Page 1769
AGENESIS OF THE CORPUS CALLOSUM AND SEPT......Page 1770
NEURONAL AND GLIAL PROLIFERATION......Page 1771
Microcephaly......Page 1772
Macrencephaly......Page 1773
Normal Development of the Cerebellar Cor......Page 1775
Disorders of Neuronal Migration......Page 1776
DISORDER OF CEREBELLAR FORMATION......Page 1777
DISORDERS OF ORGANIZATION......Page 1778
Disorders......Page 1780
Key Features of the Blood-Brain Barrier......Page 1781
Key Features of the Blood-Brain Barrier......Page 1782
THE NEUROVASCULAR UNIT AND THE  BLOOD-BR......Page 1783
Angiogenesis: Capillary Formation......Page 1785
Molecular Biology of the Junctional Comp......Page 1786
Permeability......Page 1787
Inflammation and Infection......Page 1788
Hyperbilirubinemia......Page 1789
Mechanical Ventilation......Page 1790
SUMMARY......Page 1791
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 1794
EARLY BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN......Page 1795
SEROTONIN PATHWAYS......Page 1796
ACETYLCHOLINE PATHWAYS......Page 1797
INHIBITORY GABA-CONTAINING NEURONS......Page 1798
EXCITATORY AMINO ACID PATHWAYS......Page 1799
REFERENCES......Page 1801
CEREBRAL HIGH-ENERGY METABOLITES......Page 1803
QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF OXIDATIVE METABO......Page 1804
GLYCOLYSIS......Page 1805
CEREBRAL ENERGY UTILIZATION......Page 1806
CEREBRAL GLUCOSE UTILIZATION......Page 1807
ALTERNATIVE SUBSTRATES FOR OXIDATIVE  ME......Page 1809
GLUCOSE AND MONOCARBOXYLIC ACID  TRANSPO......Page 1810
CEREBRAL ENERGY METABOLISM IN HYPOXIA-IS......Page 1811
CEREBRAL ACIDOSIS IN HYPOXIA-ISCHEMIA......Page 1812
CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK......Page 1813
164 Electroencephalography in the Prematureand Full-Term Infant......Page 1817
Other Methods to Mathematically Process......Page 1818
BIOBEHAVIORAL STATES AND CONCEPTIONAL AG......Page 1819
Early Development of the EEG in Relation......Page 1820
Fetal EEG......Page 1821
Clinical Recognition of State......Page 1822
Continuity and Discontinuity......Page 1825
Excessive Discontinuity......Page 1827
Synchrony and Asynchrony......Page 1828
Reactivity......Page 1830
Central-Temporal Δ Activity......Page 1831
Brushes (Δ Brushes, Spindle-Like Fast Rh......Page 1832
Encoches Frontales (Frontal Sharp Waves)......Page 1833
Dominant Rhythmic Patterns of Early Infa......Page 1834
Abnormal EEG Patterns......Page 1835
Pathologic Sharp Waves......Page 1836
Seizures......Page 1837
REFERENCES......Page 1838
Autoregulation......Page 1841
Effect of Blood Glucose......Page 1842
Experimental Studies......Page 1843
Changes in Cerebral Blood Flow Velocity......Page 1844
Instrumentation......Page 1845
imPact of chorioamnionitiS......Page 1846
PoSitron emiSSion tomograPh......Page 1847
Quantitation of cerebral blooD flow......Page 1848
REFERENCES......Page 1849
166 Intraventricular Hemorrhage in the Neonate......Page 1852
DIAGNOSIS......Page 1854
NEUROPATHOLOGY......Page 1855
Periventricular Hemorrhagic lnfarction......Page 1856
Fluctuating Cerebral Blood Flow......Page 1857
Causes of Increased Arterial Blood Pressssure in the Human Newborn......Page 1858
Aspsphyxia......Page 1859
Coagulation......Page 1860
Destruction of Germinal Matrix and Glial......Page 1861
Incidence and Definition......Page 1862
Experimental Studies......Page 1863
Natural History......Page 1864
REFERENCES......Page 1865
Primary Neurulation......Page 1870
Insights From Mouse Genetic Models......Page 1871
Insights From Mechanical Models......Page 1872
Environmental Features......Page 1873
NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND PRIMARY PREVENTIO......Page 1874
Exencephaly......Page 1875
Encephalocele......Page 1876
Myelomeningocele......Page 1877
THE BURDEN OF NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS......Page 1878
Fetal Neurosurgical Intervention......Page 1879
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......Page 1884
NEURAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 1885
NEUROTROPHIC PROTEINS......Page 1886
Folic Acid......Page 1887
FATTY ACIDS AND CHOLESTEROL......Page 1888
Thyroid Hormones......Page 1889
REFERENCES......Page 1890
Neuroanatomy, Neurophysiology, and Neuro......Page 1894
CLINICAL AND PHYSIOLOGIC MARKERS  ASSOCI......Page 1895
EFFECTS OF PAIN......Page 1896
SUMMARY......Page 1897
Vasculogenesis......Page 1899
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF RETINOPATHY OF PREMATURITY......Page 1900
Erythropoietin......Page 1901
Antioxidant Defenses......Page 1902
Treatment Rules......Page 1903
REFERENCES......Page 1904
Conductive Apparatus......Page 1906
Cochlea......Page 1910
Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI) Programs......Page 1913
Central Auditory Nervous System......Page 1914
Sensitivity......Page 1917
Speech Perception......Page 1918
REFERENCES......Page 1919
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 1923
172 Development of Taste and Smell in the Neonate......Page 1924
Hedonics: Newborns......Page 1925
Prenatal Development......Page 1927
Sensitivity and Discrimination: Newborns......Page 1928
Hedonics: Newborns, Older Infants, and Young Children......Page 1929
REFERENCES......Page 1930
Limb Bud Outgrowth (Proximodistal Patterning)......Page 1933
Anteroposterior Axis Determination......Page 1934
Bone and Growth Plate Development......Page 1935
The Molecular Biology of Chondrocyte Differentiation......Page 1936
Cartilaginous Component......Page 1937
GROWTH AND ITS CONTROL......Page 1938
CORRELATED CLINICAL CONDITIONS......Page 1940
REFERENCES......Page 1941
OVERVIEW......Page 1943
Transverse Arrest......Page 1945
Cutaneous Syndactyly......Page 1946
Radial Polydactyly......Page 1947
REFERENCES......Page 1948
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND......Page 1951
MYOGENIC REGULATORY GENES......Page 1952
Structural and Contractile Proteins......Page 1954
Sarcolemmal Nuclei......Page 1958
Contractile Myofilaments......Page 1960
Intermediate Filaments......Page 1961
Microtubules......Page 1962
Mitochondria......Page 1963
METABOLIC DIFFERENTIATION OF MYOFIBERS......Page 1964
FASCICULAR ORGANIZATION OF DEVELOPING MUSCLE......Page 1966
MUSCLE SPINDLES AND TENDON ORGANS......Page 1967
TENDON DEVELOPMENT......Page 1969
MEMBRANE EXCITABILITY AND INNERVATION OF FETAL MUSCLE......Page 1970
REFERENCE......Page 1971
EMBRYOLOGY......Page 1975
Temperature Regulation......Page 1977
ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS......Page 1979
Oxytocin......Page 1981
Leptin......Page 1982
REFERENCES......Page 1983
Insulin-like Growth Factor Receptors......Page 1986
Insulin-like Growth Factor Binding Proteins......Page 1987
Epidermal Growth Factor System......Page 1988
Overexpression of Growth Hormone and Insulin-like Growth Factor-I and -II......Page 1989
Insulin-like Growth Factors and Insulin-like Growth Factor Receptor Mutations......Page 1990
Pregnancy......Page 1991
Intrauterine Growth Restriction......Page 1992
SUMMARY......Page 1993
REFERENCES......Page 1994
THE DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHALAMOPITUITARY CONTROL......Page 1998
GROWTH HORMONE......Page 1999
PROLACTIN......Page 2000
PLACENTAL LACTOGENIC HORMONES......Page 2001
REFERENCES......Page 2002
Hypothalamus......Page 2005
Portal Circulation......Page 2007
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)......Page 2008
Gonadal Steroids......Page 2010
Mechanisms Postulated to Be Responsible for Characteristic Patterns of Gonadotropin Levelsin the Fetus and Neonate......Page 2012
Congenital Hypothalamic and Pituitary Abnormalities......Page 2014
REFERENCES......Page 2015
180 Development of the Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone–Corticotropin System in the Mammalian Fetus......Page 2019
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone......Page 2020
REGULATION......Page 2021
FETAL PROGRAMMING AND THE HYPOTHALAMUS-PITUITARY-ADRENAL AXIS......Page 2022
SIGNIFICANCE......Page 2024
REFERENCES......Page 2025
DEVELOPMENTAL HISTOLOGY......Page 2027
ENZYMES AND SECRETORY PRODUCTS......Page 2028
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone......Page 2029
Estrogen......Page 2031
Maintenance of Pregnancy and Initiation of Parturition......Page 2032
Preterm Infants......Page 2033
REFERENCES......Page 2034
EMBRYOGENESIS AND HISTOLOGIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE THYROID GLAND......Page 2037
Thyroglobulin Synthesis and Iodide Organification......Page 2038
Thyroglobulin Proteolysis and Thyroid Hormone Secretion......Page 2039
FETOPLACENTOMATERNAL THYROID INTERACTION......Page 2040
CONTROL OF THYROID HORMONE PRODUCTION......Page 2041
FETAL THYROID HORMONE METABOLISM......Page 2042
Thyroid System Effects and Adaptation to Extrauterine Life......Page 2043
REFERENCES......Page 2044
Early Y-Chromosomal Candidate Sequences: H-Y antigen, Bkm Sequences, and Zfy......Page 2047
Rates of Cell Division in Early Embryos......Page 2048
Genes Functioning Upstream of SRY/Sry......Page 2049
Development of the Testis: Genes Acting Downstream of SRY/Sry......Page 2050
SECONDARY SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION......Page 2051
CONCLUSION......Page 2052
REFERENCES......Page 2053
Early Ovarian Differentiation......Page 2056
MEIOTIC PROPHASE OF OOCYTES......Page 2057
Process of Meiosis......Page 2058
Meiosis-Regulatory Substances......Page 2059
Formation of the Granulosa Layer......Page 2060
Formation of the Theca Layer and Early Follicular Steroidogenesis......Page 2061
FOLLICULAR GROWTH DURING CHILDHOOD......Page 2062
REFERENCES......Page 2063
INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE TRACTS AND EXTERNAL GENITALIA......Page 2065
LEYDIG CELLS......Page 2066
SERTOLI AND GERM CELLS......Page 2067
BLOOD-TESTIS BARRIER......Page 2068
REGULATION OF TESTICULAR DESCENT......Page 2069
THE DIAGNOSIS AND INCIDENCE OF CRYPTORCHIDISM......Page 2070
REFERENCES......Page 2071
A......Page 2073
B......Page 2076
C......Page 2079
D......Page 2083
E......Page 2085
F......Page 2087
G......Page 2088
H......Page 2091
I......Page 2094
L......Page 2096
M......Page 2099
N......Page 2101
O......Page 2103
P......Page 2104
R......Page 2109
S......Page 2110
T......Page 2114
U......Page 2116
V......Page 2117
W......Page 2118
Z......Page 2119