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دانلود کتاب Feigin and Cherry’s Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases
دانلود کتاب کتاب درسی فیگین و گیلاس بیماری های عفونی کودکان
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Feigin and Cherry’s Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases
دسته بندی: بیماری های عفونی ویرایش: 8th نویسندگان: James Cherry et al. سری: ISBN (شابک) : 9780323376921 ناشر: Elsevier سال نشر: 2018 تعداد صفحات: 3992 زبان: English فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود) حجم فایل: 106 مگابایت
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Feigin and Cherry\'s Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Copyright Page Dedication Ralph D. Feigin, MD April 3, 1938–August 14, 2008 Editors photos page Contributors Preface 1 Molecular Determinants of Microbial Pathogenesis Colonization Pilus Adhesins Nonpilus Adhesins Other Mechanisms of Adherence Tissue Tropism Biofilms Cell Entry and Intracellular Life Invasion Intracellular Survival Viral Cell Entry Cell-to-Cell Spread Damage to the Host Bordetella pertussis Toxins Hemolytic-Uremic Syndrome and Shiga Toxins Tissue-Degrading Toxins Evasion of Immunity Antiphagocytic Factors Evasion of Complement Activity Evasion of Humoral Immunity Encapsulation Viral Immune Suppression and Latency Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 2 Normal and Impaired Immunologic Responses to Infection Host-Pathogen Interactions General Features of Host-Pathogen Interactions Main Features of Host Responses to Specific Classes of Infectious Agents Viruses Bacteria Fungi Parasites Features of Normal Immune Function Innate Immune Responses Epithelia, Defensins, and Other Antimicrobial Peptides Toll-Like Receptors Cytokines Chemokines Natural Killer Cells Complement System Complement activation. Classical pathway. Alternative pathway. Mannan-binding lectin pathway. Effector functions of complement in host defense. Opsonic activity. Inflammation. Microbicidal activity. Immune regulation. Phagocytes Phagocyte recruitment to infected sites. Phagocytosis. Phagocyte microbicidal mechanisms. Important Interactions Among Innate Immune Mechanisms Adaptive Immune Responses Antigen Presentation and Specific Cell-Mediated Immunity Class I major histocompatibility complex. Class II major histocompatibility complex. CD1 family of antigen-presenting molecules. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells. T Lymphocytes Regulatory T cells. T-cell memory. T-cell activation by superantigens. B Lymphocytes and Immunoglobulins B lymphocytes. Immunoglobulin. Immunoglobulin isotypes. Clinical Conditions Associated With Deficient Host Responses to Infection Immature Host Responses of the Newborn Infant Cell-Mediated Immunity B Cells and Antibody B cells. Antibody. Complement Phagocytes Primary and Heritable Immunologic Deficiencies Antibody Deficiencies X-linked agammaglobulinemia. IgG subclass deficiency. IgA deficiency. Transient hypogammaglobulinemia of infancy. Antibody deficiency with normal or elevated levels of immunoglobulins. Defects of Cell-Mediated Immunity: DiGeorge Syndrome Combined Defects of Cellular and Humoral Immunity Severe combined immunodeficiency disease. Common variable immunodeficiency. Hyper–immunoglobulin M syndrome. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. Ataxia-telangiectasia. Defects of the Interferon-Gamma (IFN-γ) and Interleukin-12 (IL-12) Pathways Complement Deficiencies Disorders of Phagocyte Function General features of phagocyte disorders. Intrinsic disorders of cell migration Type 1 leukocyte adhesion deficiency. Type 2 leukocyte adhesion deficiency. Type 3 leukocyte adhesion deficiency (integrin activation defect). Specific granule deficiency. Chédiak-Higashi syndrome. Neutrophil actin dysfunction. Glycogen storage disease type 1B. Extrinsic or secondary defects of polymorphonuclear leukocyte migration Defective neutrophil chemotaxis associated with serum inhibitors of cell function. Hyper-immunoglobulin E syndrome. Other secondary or poorly defined disorders of polymorphonuclear leukocyte migration. Defects in phagocyte microbicidal activity. Chronic granulomatous disease. Deficiencies of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione synthetase. Myeloperoxidase deficiency. Important Examples of Secondary Immunodeficiency (Excluding Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection) Asplenia Sickle-Cell Disease Cystic Fibrosis Ciliary Dyskinesia Evaluation for Immunodeficiency in the Child With Recurrent or Severe Infections History Physical Examination Laboratory Studies Prevention of Infection Prospects for Correction of Serious Primary Immunodeficiencies New References Since the Seventh Edition References 3 Host Response to Infections Introduction Host Responses for Improving the Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases Genomics Basics of the Genomics Approach Genomics in Infectious Diseases Epigenetics Basics of the Epigenetics Approach Epigenetics in Infectious Diseases In Vitro Studies In Vivo Studies Transcriptomics Basics of the Transcriptomics Approach Microarray Analyses RNA Seq Use of Transcriptomics in Infectious Diseases In Vitro Studies In Vivo Human Studies Areas for Improved Diagnosis in Pediatrics Lower Respiratory Tract Infections (LRTI)/Pneumonia Febrile Infant Without a Source Differentiating Infection Versus Colonization Proteomics Basics of the Proteomics Approach Protein Separation Strategies Nonprotein Separation Strategies Proteomics in Infectious Diseases In Vitro Studies Human Studies C-Reactive Protein Procalcitonin Metabolomics Basics of the Metabolomic Approach Metabolomics in Infectious Diseases In Vitro and Animal Model Studies Human Studies Future Perspectives New References Since the Seventh Edition References 4 Fever: Pathogenesis and Treatment Normal Body Temperature Thermoregulation Pathogenesis of Fever Effects of Fever Adverse Effects Beneficial Effects Clinical Thermometry Types of Thermometers Measurement Site Treatment Indications Antipyretics External Cooling Summary New References Since the Seventh Edition References 5 The Human Microbiome Introduction Development in Early Life Through Childhood Impact of Environmental Factors: Diet and Medications Body Metabolism and Immunity Microbiome at Different Body Sites Airway and Respiratory Tract Microbiome Gastrointestinal Microbiome Skin and Vaginal Microbiomes Summary New References Since the Seventh Edition References 6 Epidemiology and Biostatistics of Infectious Diseases Epidemiologic Studies Design of Studies Overview and Definitions Elements of an Analytic Study Types of Studies Experimental Studies Observational Studies Cohort studies. Case-control studies. Cross-sectional studies. Analysis of Epidemiologic Studies Cohort Studies Case-Control and Cross-Sectional Studies Summary Statistics Continuous Variables Categorical Variables Bias Causes of Disease Historical Perspectives General Concepts Factors Related to the Infectious Agent Intrinsic Properties Epidemiologic Properties Relating to the Host Infectivity. Pathogenicity. Virulence. Immunogenicity. Factors Related to Relationship Between Infectious Agent and Host Reservoirs of infectious agents. Mechanisms of transmission. Factors Related to the Host Biologic Factors Age Sex, Race, and Ethnicity General Health Status Immunity and Immune Response Human Behavior Factors Related to the Environment Geographic and Geologic Factors Climate Socioeconomic Conditions Occurrence of Disease in Populations Infection and Disease in the Individual Infection and Disease in Populations Sources of information. Relating infection and disease to personal characteristics. Relative usefulness and importance of characteristics. Age patterns. Age adjustment of rates. Sex patterns. Ethnic or racial patterns. Disease patterns in kinships. Family episodes of infection and disease. Socioeconomic patterns. Relating Infection and Disease to Place Global variation. Local patterns of infection and disease. Temporal Patterns of Infection and Disease Definitions. Time clusters. Short-term patterns Epidemics. Seasonal and cyclic variations. Long-term trends. Emerging infections. Biostatistics Statistical Significance Hypothesis Testing Type I Error, Type II Error, and Statistical Power Multiple Comparisons Tests of Statistical Significance Continuous Variables Categorical Values Confidence Intervals Adjustment for Potential Confounding Variables Meta-Analysis Diagnostic Tests What Is Normal? Accuracy of a Diagnostic Test Predictive Value of a Diagnostic Test Assessment of the Protective Efficacy of a Vaccine (or of Any Intervention) Clinical Trials Observational Cohort Studies Case-Control Studies Quality Improvement New References Since the Seventh Edition References 1 ■ Upper Respiratory Tract Infections 7 The Common Cold History Etiologic Agents Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 8 Infections of the Oral Cavity Microbiologic Considerations in Dental Infections Normal Flora Pathogenic Organisms Anatomic Considerations Treatment of Odontogenic Infections General Therapeutic Principles Nursing Bottle Caries Periapical Abscess Periodontal Infections Pericoronitis Oral Manifestations of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Children Oral Care of Children With Cancer Complications of Odontogenic Infections Fascial Space Infections Necrotizing Fasciitis Odontogenic Sinusitis Buccal and Periorbital Cellulitis Orbital and Intracranial Complications Osteomyelitis of the Jaws in Children Predisposing Factors Microbiology Clinical Findings Suppurative Osteomyelitis Infantile Osteomyelitis Garré Sclerosing Osteomyelitis Herpes Simplex Virus Infections Intraoral and Perioral Piercings New References Since the Seventh Edition References 9 Pharyngitis (Pharyngitis, Tonsillitis, Tonsillopharyngitis, and Nasopharyngitis) History Nasopharyngitis Etiologic Agents Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Pharyngitis, Tonsillitis, and Tonsillopharyngitis Etiologic Agents Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation General Periodic Fever, Aphthous Stomatitis, Pharyngitis, and Adenitis Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Complications Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 10 Uvulitis Etiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 11 Peritonsillar, Retropharyngeal, and Parapharyngeal Abscesses Keywords Epidemiology of Head and Neck Space Infections in Children Peritonsillar Abscess (Quinsy) Clinical Manifestations Treatment Retropharyngeal Abscess (Posterior Visceral Space, Retrovisceral Space, and Retroesophageal Space Abscesses) Clinical Manifestations Treatment Parapharyngeal Abscess (Pterygomaxillary, Pharyngomaxillary, Lateral, and Pharyngeal Space Abscesses) Clinical Manifestations Treatment Microbiology of Deep Neck Abscesses New References Since the Seventh Edition References 12 Cervical Lymphadenitis Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 13 Parotitis Pathophysiology Etiology Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Parotid Enlargement Differential Diagnosis Treatment Complications Prevention New Reference Since the Seventh Edition References 14 Rhinosinusitis Keywords: History Anatomy Pathophysiology Etiology Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Complications Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Acute and Subacute Sinusitis Chronic and Recurrent Sinusitis Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 15 Otitis Externa Epidemiology Normal Anatomy Protective Mechanisms of the External Ear Normal Bacterial Flora Acute Otitis Externa History and Physical Examination Pathogens in Acute Otitis Externa Management of Acute Otitis Externa Chronic Otitis Externa Otomycosis Necrotizing Otitis Externa Differential Diagnosis Prevention Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 16 Otitis Media Incidence and Epidemiology of Acute Otitis Media Risk Factors Microbiology of Acute Otitis Media in the Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Era Etiology in Neonates Pathophysiology Tympanic Membrane Eustachian Tube Pathogenesis Diagnosis Symptoms and Clinical Manifestations of AOM Diagnostic Signs of Acute Otitis Media Examination of the Ear Otoscopy Tympanometry Acoustic Reflectometry Audiometric Testing Tympanocentesis and Myringotomy Radiography Management of Acute Otitis Media Tympanocentesis as Treatment Watchful Waiting Pain Management Duration of Treatment Treatment in the Penicillin-Allergic Child Management of Otitis Media With Effusion Biofilms Recurrent Acute Otitis Media Immunology Prevention Advising Parents Vaccinations to Prevent Acute Otitis Media Pneumococcal Vaccines Influenza Virus Vaccines Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine Complications and Sequelae Hearing Loss Mastoiditis Petrositis Labyrinthitis Meningitis Facial Paralysis Other Suppurative Complications Vestibular Dysfunction Effects of Otitis Media on Development of the Child Perforation of the Tympanic Membrane and Chronic Suppurative Otitis Media Cholesteatoma Adhesive Otitis Media Tympanosclerosis and Tympanic Atrophy Surgical Options Myringotomy and Tympanocentesis Myringotomy, Tympanostomy Tubes, and Adenoidectomy Importance of Official Guidelines for Management of Middle Ear Disease Randomized Controlled Trials Otitis Media With Effusion Guidelines: Myringotomy, M&T, and Adenoidectomy for Chronic Otitis Media With Effusion Recurrent Acute Otitis Media Guidelines: Myringotomy and Tympanostomy Tube Placement for Recurrent Acute Otitis Media Tympanostomy Tube Placement and Physiologic Functions of the Eustachian Tube Other Indications for Placement of Tympanostomy Tubes When Should Tympanostomy Tubes Be Removed? Complications and Sequelae Other Surgical Procedures New References Since the Seventh Edition References 17 Mastoiditis Keywords: History Anatomy and Pathophysiology Microbiology Clinical Presentation Complications Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 18 Croup (Laryngitis, Laryngotracheitis, Spasmodic Croup, Laryngotracheobronchitis, Bacterial Tracheitis and Laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis) and Epiglottitis (Supraglottitis) Keywords: Historical Aspects Terminology Etiology of Croup Syndromes Etiology of Supraglottitis Epidemiology of Croup Epidemiology of Supraglottitis Pathology and Pathogenesis of Croup Anatomy and Pathophysiology of Supraglottitis Clinical Presentation Acute Laryngitis Acute Laryngotracheitis Acute Laryngotracheobronchitis and Laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis (Bacterial Tracheitis) Spasmodic Croup Supraglottitis Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis in Croup Syndromes Specific Diagnosis in Supraglottitis Treatment of Croup Acute Laryngotracheitis and Spasmodic Croup Laryngotracheobronchitis and Laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis (Bacterial Tracheitis) Laryngitis Treatment of Supraglottitis Securing the Airway Antibiotics Other Supportive Measures Prognosis Prevention of Croup Prevention of Epiglottitis Caused by Haemophilus influenzae Type B New References Since the Seventh Edition References 2 ■ Lower Respiratory Tract Infections 19 Acute Bronchitis Keywords: Etiology Epidemiology Pathophysiology and Pathology Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis and Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 20 Chronic Bronchitis Differential Diagnosis Asthma Acute Infections Cystic Fibrosis Ciliary Dyskinesia Primary Immunodeficiency Secondary Immunodeficiency (Including HIV Infection) Airway Blockage Noxious Agents Epidemiology and Etiology Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 21 Bronchiolitis and Infectious Asthma Definitions History Etiologic Agents Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Pathophysiology Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Complications and Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 22 Pediatric Community-Acquired Pneumonia Etiology Viral Pathogen Bacterial Pathogens Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Outpatient Setting Inpatient Setting Management Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 23 Empyema and Lung Abscess Empyema Epidemiology Pathophysiology Microbiology Diagnosis Clinical Presentation Imaging Pleural Fluid Analysis Additional Diagnostic Studies Management Prognosis and Long-Term Outcome Lung Abscess Pathophysiology Microbiology Clinical Features Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Additional Complications New References Since the Seventh Edition References 24 Children’s Interstitial Lung Disease and Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Classification Postinfectious Bronchiolitis Obliterans Organizing Pneumonia Infections Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Toxic Inhalation Eosinophilic Pneumonias Pulmonary Vasculitis Syndromes Collagen-Vascular Diseases Sarcoidosis Drug Hypersensitivity Nonspecific Lymphoproliferation Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Evaluation High-Resolution Computed Tomography Bronchoalveolar Lavage Lung Biopsy Treatment Outcome Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Pathology and Pathogenesis Etiology Clinical Presentation Diagnosis Treatment and Outcome New References Since the Seventh Edition References 25 Cystic Fibrosis Keywords: Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Pathogenesis Specific Cystic Fibrosis Pathogens Viral Pathogens Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae Staphylococcus aureus Pseudomonas aeruginosa Burkholderia cepacia Complex Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Achromobacter xylosoxidans Anaerobic Bacteria Fungal Species Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Treatment of Pathogens in Cystic Fibrosis Patients Prophylaxis to Prevent Acquisition of Staphylococcus aureus Early Eradication of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Early Eradication of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Treatment of Pulmonary Exacerbations Pseudomonas aeruginosa Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Burkholderia cepacia Complex Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Achromobacter xylosoxidans Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Long-Term Suppressive Therapy Inhaled Antibiotics Macrolide Antibiotics Lung Transplantation Antiinflammatory Therapy CFTR Modulators Prevention Immunizations Infection Control Precautions Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 26 Infective Endocarditis Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Laboratory Findings Microbiology Streptococci Staphylococci Gram-Negative Organisms Gram-Positive Bacilli Other Organisms Fungi Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 27 Infectious Pericarditis Anatomy and Function Bacterial Pericarditis Population and Incidence Etiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Viral Pericarditis Etiology Clinical Manifestations Investigative Techniques Course and Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 28 Myocarditis Epidemiology Etiologies Pathology Pathogenesis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Chest Radiography Electrocardiogram Echocardiography and Cardiac MRI Endomyocardial Biopsy Molecular Diagnostic Studies Polymerase Chain Reaction Virologic and Bacteriologic Studies Serum Biomarkers Differential Diagnosis Treatment Standard Approaches Immune-Modulating Agents Prognosis Myocarditis in Cases of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Parasitic Myocarditis Chagas Disease Other Parasitic Causes of Myocarditis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 29 Acute Rheumatic Fever Epidemiology Pathogenesis Vaccine Development Rheumatic Fever in Developing Countries Pathology Clinical Course Laboratory Findings Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Cardiac Surgery Prognosis Prevention Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 30 Mediastinitis Acute Mediastinitis Mediastinitis Due to Esophageal Perforation Mediastinitis Due to Extension of Infection From Adjacent Structures Postoperative Mediastinitis Chronic Mediastinitis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 31 Bacterial Meningitis Beyond the Neonatal Period Incidence and Epidemiology Epidemiology of Meningitis Caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae Epidemiology of Meningococcal Meningitis Epidemiology of Haemophilus influenzae Meningitis Pathophysiology Organisms Encountered Routes of Infection Pathogenesis Mucosal Colonization Bacteremia Bacterial Traversal of the Blood-Brain Barrier BBB Dysfunction and Intracranial Inflammation Neuronal Injury Factors Predisposing the Host to Bacterial Meningitis Pathology Clinical Manifestations and Pathophysiologic Relationships Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Antimicrobial Therapy Adjunctive Therapy Antiinflammatory Therapy Corticosteroids Glycerol Supportive Care Prognosis and Sequelae Prevention Pneumococcal Infection Chemoprophylaxis Immunoprophylaxis Meningococcal Infection Chemoprophylaxis Immunoprophylaxis Haemophilus influenzae Meningitis Chemoprophylaxis Immunoprophylaxis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 32 Parameningeal Infections Brain Abscess Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Rupture of Brain Abscess Into the Ventricular System Laboratory Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Adjunctive Agents Subdural Empyema Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Epidural Abscess Spinal Epidural Infections Sources of Infection Clinical Manifestations Phase 1: Spinal Ache Phase 2: Root Pain Phases 3 and 4: Weakness and Paralysis Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 33 Fungal Meningitis Epidemiology Diagnosis Clinical Manifestations Infection With Specific Organisms Candidal Meningitis Cryptococcosis Histoplasmosis Coccidioidomycosis Blastomycosis Aspergillosis Sporotrichosis Mucormycosis Other Fungal Infections New References Since the Seventh Edition References 34 Eosinophilic Meningitis Introduction Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Course and Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 35 Aseptic Meningitis and Viral Meningitis History Etiology Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Enteroviruses Aseptic Meningitis Caused by Other Agents Recurrent Aseptic Meningitis (Mollaret Meningitis) Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 36 Encephalitis and Meningoencephalitis History Etiology Viruses Enteroviruses and Human Parechoviruses Herpesviruses Arboviruses Vaccine-Preventable Viruses Rare and/or Newly Emerging Viruses Bacteria Parasites and Free-Living Amoebae Fungi Other Putative Agents of Encephalitis Postimmunization Encephalitis Postinfectious Encephalitis Chronic Encephalitic or Encephalopathic Illnesses Epidemiology Pathogenesis Pathology Clinical Manifestations Differential Diagnosis Evaluation of a Patient With Encephalopathy or Possible Encephalitis Neuroimaging Electroencephalography Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 37 Parainfectious and Postinfectious Disorders of the Nervous System 37A ■ Parainfectious and Postinfectious Demyelinating Disorders of the Central Nervous System Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis Epidemiology Diagnostic Criteria Clinical Manifestations Clinical Variants Pathology and Pathogenesis Role of Infection Role of Immunization Immunologic Factors Pathogenesis Clinical Evaluation Treatment Outcome and Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 37B ■ Infection-Associated Myelitis and Myelopathies of the Spinal Cord Acute Transverse Myelitis Diagnostic Criteria Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Radiologic Features Lumbar Puncture Differential Diagnosis Conditions That Mimic Acute Transverse Myelitis Extramedullary Lesions Intramedullary Lesions Peripheral Lesions Disease-Associated Acute Transverse Myelitis Role of Infections in Transverse Myelitis Infectious Myelopathies Postinfectious Acute Transverse Myelitis Role of the Immune System in Idiopathic Acute Transverse Myelitis Treatment Outcome and Prognosis Recurrences Disability New References Since the Seventh Edition References 37C ■ Guillain-Barré Syndrome Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Subtypes Differential Diagnosis Pathogenesis Clinical Evaluation Treatment Outcome and Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 5 ■ Genitourinary Tract Infections 38 Urethritis Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Noninfectious Infectious Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 39 Cystitis and Pyelonephritis Epidemiology Risk for Urinary Tract Infection Risk Factors for Urinary Tract Infection Uncircumcised Boys Dysfunctional Voiding Constipation Sexual Activity Catheters Pathogenesis Bacteriology Virulence Factors Clinical Presentation Cystitis Pyelonephritis Physical Examination Asymptomatic Bacteriuria Differential Diagnosis Infectious Noninfectious Diagnosis Collection of a Urine Specimen Diagnosis of Urinary Tract Infection Microscopy Urine Dipsticks Determining the Site of Infection Imaging Renal Ultrasonography Renal Scintigraphy Magnetic Resonance Imaging Voiding Cystourethrography Computed Tomography Treatment Antibiotics for Treatment of Acute Infection Corticosteroids Dysfunctional Voiding Antibiotic Prophylaxis Vesicoureteral Reflux Epidemiology Natural History Management Antimicrobial Prophylaxis Surgery Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 40 Renal Abscess Clinical Findings Diagnostic Evaluation Therapeutic Considerations Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 41 Prostatitis Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 42 Genital Infections General Approach to Evaluation of Prepubertal Child Normal Vaginal Flora Lower Genital Tract Infections Vulvovaginitis Prepubertal Postpubertal Nonspecific Vulvovaginitis Prepubertal. Vulvovaginitis secondary to poor perineal hygiene. Vulvovaginitis secondary to intestinal parasites. Vulvovaginitis secondary to vaginal foreign bodies. Specific Non–Sexually Transmitted Vulvovaginitis Vulvovaginitis secondary to respiratory pathogens Streptococcus pyogenes (group A Streptococcus) vulvovaginitis. Vulvovaginitis secondary to other nasopharyngeal bacteria. Vulvovaginitis secondary to specific enteric pathogens. Vulvovaginitis secondary to skin infections. Mycotic (fungal) vulvovaginitis Prepubertal. Postpubertal. Diagnosis. Treatment. Specific Sexually Transmitted Vulvovaginitis Gonorrhea Prepubertal Diagnosis Treatment Chlamydia Prepubertal Diagnosis Treatment Trichomoniasis Prepubertal Postpubertal Diagnosis Treatment Bacterial Vaginosis Prepubertal Postpubertal Diagnosis Treatment Infections of the Clitoris Urethritis Bartholinitis and Bartholin Abscess Vulvovaginal Lesions, Ulcerations, and Granulomatous Infections Human Papillomavirus and Genital Warts Prepubertal Postpubertal Diagnosis Treatment Molluscum Contagiosum Ulcerations and Granulomatous Infections Lymphogranuloma Venereum Cervicitis Prepubertal Postpubertal Diagnosis Treatment Chlamydia Gonorrhea Upper Genital Tract Infections Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Endometritis Salpingitis Diagnosis Treatment Perihepatitis Tubo-ovarian Abscess Oophoritis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 6 ■ Gastrointestinal Tract Infections 43 Esophagitis Pathophysiology and Causative Organisms Clinical Features Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Barium Esophagography Esophagoscopy Prevention Treatment Candida Esophagitis Other Causes of Fungal Esophagitis Viral Esophagitis Bacterial Esophagitis Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 44 Approach to Patients With Gastrointestinal Tract Infections and Food Poisoning Epidemiology Epidemiologic Categories of Diarrhea Diarrhea Acquired in Institutional Centers: Childcare Centers Antimicrobial-Associated Diarrhea Diarrhea in Immunosuppressed Host Traveler’s Diarrhea Food- and Waterborne Diseases: Food Poisoning Foodborne disease due to bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Food poisoning by chemicals. Prevention of foodborne disease. Waterborne disease. Clinical Classification of Diarrhea Episodes Organisms That Cause Diarrhea Viruses Rotaviruses Noroviruses Astroviruses Enteric Adenoviruses Bacteria Shigella Salmonella Campylobacter Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli Shiga toxin–producing E. coli. Enteropathogenic E. coli. Enterotoxigenic E. coli. Enteroinvasive E. coli. Enteroaggregative E. coli. Diffusely adherent E. coli. Adherent invasive E. coli. Vibrio cholerae Vibrio parahaemolyticus Yersinia enterocolitica Aeromonas hydrophila Plesiomonas shigelloides Clostridium difficile Clostridium perfringens Staphylococcus aureus Bacillus cereus Listeria monocytogenes Parasites Entamoeba histolytica Giardia intestinalis Cryptosporidium Isospora belli Cyclospora Microsporidia Strongyloides stercoralis Diagnosis Macroscopic Stool Examination Microscopic Examination Fecal Leukocytes Ova and Parasites Special Stains for Coccidia Stool Cultures Immunologic Methods Molecular Methods Treatment Fluid and Electrolyte Therapy Nutritional Management Antimicrobial Therapy Therapy for Dysentery Shigella Campylobacter Salmonella Shiga Toxin–Producing E. coli Therapy for Other Bacterial Agents Diarrheagenic E. coli Cholera Therapy for Intestinal Parasites Entamoeba histolytica Giardia Cryptosporidium Cyclospora Microsporidia Strongyloides Additional Therapy Zinc Probiotics Antisecretory Agents Antiemetics Prevention Vaccines Rotavirus Vaccine Vaccines for Other Enteric Viruses Vaccines for Enteric Bacteria New References Since the Seventh Edition References 45 Antibiotic-Associated Colitis History Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Laboratory Studies Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention and Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 46 Whipple Disease History Epidemiology Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Acute Infection Gastroenteritis Bacteremia Pneumonia “Classic” Whipple Disease Gastrointestinal Tract Joints Central Nervous System Eye Skin Heart Skeletal Muscle Lymph Nodes and Spleen Lungs Kidney Blood Diagnosis Treatment Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 7 ■ Liver Diseases 47 Hepatitis History Clinical Manifestations and Evaluation Patient History Physical Findings Laboratory Diagnosis Infectious Causes Viruses Hepatitis Viruses Hepatitis A virus. Hepatitis B virus. Hepatitis C virus. Hepatitis D virus. Hepatitis E virus. Herpesviruses Herpes simplex virus. Varicella-zoster virus. Cytomegalovirus. Epstein-Barr virus. Human herpesviruses 6, 7, and 8. Herpes B virus. Adenoviruses Erythroviruses: Human Parvovirus B19 Enteroviruses Measles Virus Rubella Virus Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses Bacteria Spirochetes Rickettsiae Parasites and Fungi Noninfectious Causes New References Since the Seventh Edition References 48 Cholangitis and Cholecystitis Cholangitis Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Evaluation Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Complications of Cholangitis Specific Populations and Cholangitis Cholangitis and Biliary Atresia Cholangitis After Liver Transplantation Cholangitis in Immunocompromised Patients Cholangitis in Association With Congenital Anatomic Abnormalities: Choledochal Cysts and Caroli Disease Cholangitis After Endoscopic and Other Biliary Procedures Cholecystitis Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Evaluation Management Complications Acalculous Cholecystitis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 49 Pyogenic Liver Abscess Pathogenesis Microbiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Complications and Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 50 Reye Syndrome Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations and Laboratory Findings Treatment and Prevention New Reference Since the Seventh Edition References 8 ■ Other Intraabdominal Infections 51 Appendicitis and Pelvic Abscess Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Microbiology Bacteria Parasites Viruses Fungi Treatment Nonperforated Appendicitis Perforated Appendicitis Prognosis and Complications Pelvic Abscess New References Since the Seventh Edition References 52 Pancreatitis Clinical Manifestations Laboratory Diagnosis Causes Infectious Causes Viral Infections Parasite Infestations and Infections Mycoplasmal and Bacterial Infections Fungal Infections Pathogenesis Treatment Complications New References Since the Seventh Edition References 53 Peritonitis and Intraabdominal Abscess Peritonitis Anatomy Pathogenesis Primary Peritonitis Secondary Peritonitis Peritonitis and Implanted Devices Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Complications Intraabdominal Abscess Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Complications References 54 Retroperitoneal Infections Etiology and Pathogenesis Microbiology Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 9 ■ Musculoskeletal Infections 55 Osteomyelitis Introduction Hematogenous Osteomyelitis Pathogenesis Signs and Symptoms Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Microbiology Radiology Plain radiographs. Magnetic resonance imaging. Radionuclide imaging. Computed tomography. Treatment of Acute Hematogenous Osteomyelitis Surgical Intervention Antimicrobial Therapy Special Manifestations of Hematogenous Osteomyelitis Brodie Abscess Osteomyelitis in Patients After Closed Fractures Epiphyseal and Apophyseal Osteomyelitis Involvement of Nontubular Bones Spinal Osteomyelitis Diskitis Vertebral Osteomyelitis Hematogenous Osteomyelitis in Special Populations Osteomyelitis in Newborns Osteomyelitis in Children With Hemoglobinopathies Osteomyelitis in Patients With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Osteomyelitis in Patients With Chronic Granulomatous Disease Nonhematogenous Osteomyelitis Puncture Wound Osteomyelitis Osteomyelitis Caused by Spread of Infection From a Contiguous Focus Orthopedic Fixator Devices Unusual Microbial Causes of Osteomyelitis Actinomyces Brucella Fungi Chronic Osteomyelitis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 56 Septic Arthritis Epidemiology Pathophysiology Etiology Diagnosis Clinical Findings Radiologic Findings Laboratory Evaluation Differential Diagnosis Treatment Surgical Treatment Antibiotic Therapy Prognosis Special Problems Neonatal Septic Arthritis Fungal Arthritis Joint Infections During Rheumatologic Disease Reactive Arthritis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 57 Bacterial Myositis and Pyomyositis Pyomyositis Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Diagnosis Treatment in the United States and India Acute Bacterial Myositis Clinical Presentation Diagnosis Treatment and the Eagle Effect Miscellaneous Causes of Myositis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 10 ■ Skin Infections 58 Cutaneous Manifestations of Systemic Infections History Etiologic Agents Epidemiology Pathophysiology and Pathology of Exanthems Clinical Manifestations Erythematous Macular Exanthems Erythematous Maculopapular Exanthems Vesicular Exanthems Petechial and Purpuric Exanthems Urticarial Exanthems Papular, Nodular, and Ulcerative Lesions Distinctive Clinical Features or Syndromes Erythema Multiforme Erythema Nodosum Hand, Foot, and Mouth Syndrome Roseola-like Illness Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever–like Illness Exanthem and Meningitis Exanthem and Pulmonary Involvement Gianotti-Crosti Syndrome (Papular Acrodermatitis) Cutaneous Manifestations Associated With Infections in Immunocompromised Patients Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment, Prognosis, and Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 59 Roseola Infantum (Exanthem Subitum) History Epidemiology Etiology Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Clinical Complications Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 60 Skin Infections 60A ■ Bacterial Skin Infections Normal Skin Anatomy Flora Cutaneous Infection and Dermatologic Manifestations of Systemic Disease Impetigo Nonbullous or Simple Superficial Impetigo Bullous Impetigo Treatment of Impetigo Perianal Streptococcal Dermatitis Blistering Distal Dactylitis Erysipelas Ecthyma Folliculitis, Furunculosis, and Carbuncles Hidradenitis Suppurativa Cellulitis Necrotizing Fasciitis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Contaminated Wounds Human Bites Animal Bites Soil-Contaminated and Water-Contaminated Wounds New References Since the Seventh Edition References 60B ■ Viral and Fungal Skin Infections Viral Infections Warts Molluscum Contagiosum Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Parvovirus B19 Infections Gianotti-Crosti Syndrome (Papular Acrodermatitis of Childhood) Asymmetric Periflexural Viral Exanthem Hand, Foot, and Mouth Syndrome Herpes Simplex Virus Varicella-Zoster Virus Fungal Infections Superficial Fungal Infections Dermatophyte Infections Tinea capitis. Tinea corporis. Tinea faciei. Tinea pedis. Tinea cruris. Tinea unguium. Diagnosis Treatment Candida Malassezia Chromoblastomycosis Tinea Nigra Trichosporonosis Deep Fungal Infections Aspergillosis Blastomycosis Coccidioidomycosis Cryptococcosis Fusariosis Histoplasmosis Mucormycosis Sporotrichosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 11 ■ Ocular Infectious Diseases 61 Ocular Infections Infections of the Eyelids Anterior Eyelid Infection Staphylococcal Blepharitis Molluscum Contagiosum Infection Parasitic Eyelid Disease Phthirus pubis Infestation Demodex Infection Posterior Eyelid Infection Hordeolum Chalazion Dacryoadenitis Nasolacrimal Duct Obstruction Dacryocystitis Preseptal (Periorbital) Cellulitis Posttraumatic Preseptal Cellulitis Nontraumatic Preseptal Cellulitis Orbital Cellulitis Conjunctival Infections Bacterial Conjunctivitis Mild Bacterial Conjunctivitis Severe Bacterial Conjunctivitis Viral Conjunctivitis Adenoviral Conjunctivitis Herpes Simplex Virus Conjunctivitis and Complex Forms External Ocular Infections With Varicella-Zoster Virus Chlamydial Conjunctivitis and Trachoma Neonatal Conjunctivitis Keratitis: Corneal Inflammation Isolated Epithelial Keratitis Stromal Keratitis Bacterial Keratitis Fungal Keratitis Protozoan Keratitis Infections Primarily Involving the Uvea Epidemiology Viral Uveitis Herpes Simplex Virus Varicella-Zoster Virus Epstein-Barr Virus Enteroviruses Rubella Virus Mumps Virus Measles Virus Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Cytomegalovirus Infection Parvovirus Infection Human T-Cell Lymphotrophic Virus Infection Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Infection Viruses Rift Valley fever virus. Herpes B virus. Influenza A virus. West Nile virus. Zika virus. Chikungunya virus. Bacterial Uveitis Syphilis Lyme Disease Leptospirosis Tuberculosis Leprosy Brucella Infection Cat-Scratch Disease Fungal Uveitis Histoplasmosis Candidiasis Aspergillosis Coccidioidomycosis Cryptococcosis Sporotrichosis Protozoal Uveitis Leishmaniasis Protozoal Infection Amebiasis. Trypanosomiasis. Malaria. Giardiasis. Helminthic Uveitis Toxocariasis Onchocerciasis Loiasis Cysticercosis Rare Causes of Parasitic Posterior Uveitis in Children Schistosomiasis. Hydatid disease. Coenurosis. Ascaris. Baylisascaris. Gnathostoma spinigerum. Wuchereria bancrofti. Trichinosis. Rickettsial disease. Typhus. Spotted fever. Q fever. Trench fever. Uveitis Caused by Insect-Induced Disease Postinfectious Uveitis Infections Involving Primarily the Retina Eye Manifestations of Intrauterine Infections (TORCHES Complex) Toxoplasmosis Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Infection Rubella Infection Cytomegalovirus Infection Herpes Simplex Virus Infection Varicella-Zoster Virus Infection Syphilis Endophthalmitis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 12 ■ Systemic Infectious Diseases 62 Bacteremia and Septic Shock Pathophysiology Endotoxin Shock in Animals Endotoxin Shock in Humans Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis Treatment Investigative Therapies Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 63 Fever Without Source and Fever of Unknown Origin Fever Without Source Occult Bacteremia Clinical Management of Fever Without Source Fever of Unknown Origin Diagnostic Approach to a Child With Fever of Unknown Origin Clinical Evaluation Laboratory Evaluation Infectious Causes of Fever of Unknown Origin Generalized Infections Brucellosis. Cat-scratch disease. Leptospirosis. Toxoplasmosis. Malaria. Salmonellosis. Tuberculosis. Tularemia. Viral infections. Immunodeficiency. Localized Infections Bacterial endocarditis. Bone and joint infections. Intraabdominal abscesses. Liver abscess and other hepatic infections. Upper respiratory tract infections. Noninfectious Causes of Fever of Unknown Origin Central Nervous System Dysfunction Diabetes Insipidus Drug Fever Factitious Fever Familial Dysautonomia Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Inflammatory Bowel Disease Infantile Cortical Hyperostosis Juvenile Idiopathic (Rheumatoid) Arthritis Periodic Fevers Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 64 Toxic Shock Syndrome Epidemiology Surveillance and Incidence Risk Factors for Toxic Shock Syndrome Colonization With Exotoxin-Producing Staphylococcus Aureus Absence of Protective Antibody Levels Interruption of Skin or Mucosal Surface Presence of a Foreign Body Other Potential Risk Factors Histopathology Clinical Spectrum Acute Phase Laboratory Findings Diagnosis Treatment Location and drainage of the infected site. Identification and susceptibility testing of the organism. Administration of antimicrobial agents. Management of systemic multiorgan actions of the toxins or mediators Fluid replacement. Intravenous immunoglobulin and toxin inhibition. Corticosteroids. Subacute Phase Outcome and Sequelae Recurrences Atypical Manifestations Mild Disease Recalcitrant Erythematous Desquamating Disorder Neonatal Toxic Shock Syndrome–like Exanthematous Disease Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome Differential Diagnosis Prevention and Prophylaxis References 65 Pediatric Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Definition Pathology and Pathophysiology Etiology Clinical Manifestations Mortality Treatment Pulmonary Management Modes of Mechanical Ventilation Positive End-Expiratory Pressure Permissive Hypoxemia and Permissive Hypercapnia Adjunctive Therapies Corticosteroids Inhaled Nitric Oxide Surfactant Replacement Nonpulmonary Supportive Management Fluid Balance Sedation and Neuromuscular Blockade Nutrition Patient Isolation Rescue Therapies Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 13 ■ Infections of the Fetus and Newborn 66 Approach to Infections in the Fetus and Newborn Viral Infections of the Fetus and Neonate Pathogenesis Congenital Viral Infections Natal or Perinatal Viral Infections Postnatal Viral Infections Approach to Diagnosis Evaluation of the Mother Clinical Features in Fetus and Newborn Differential Diagnosis Laboratory Diagnosis Treatment Bacterial Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Epidemiology and Pathogenesis Neonatal Sepsis Bacterial Meningitis Otitis Media Diarrheal Disease Urinary Tract Infections Suppurative Arthritis and Osteomyelitis Conjunctivitis and Orbital Cellulitis Funisitis and Omphalitis Breast Abscess Suppurative Parotitis Scalp Abscess Pneumonia Yeast and Fungal Infections of the Fetus and Neonate Neonatal Candidiasis Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Invasive Yeasts Other Than Candida Invasive Fungal Diseases Congenital and Perinatal Transmission Acquired Invasive Fungal Disease Aspergillus. Zygomycetes (Absidia, Rhizopus, Mucor, and Rhizomucor). Treatment Congenital Toxoplasmosis Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, and Ureaplasma Infections in the Neonate Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 14 ■ Infections of the Compromised Host 67 Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases Initial Evaluation for Suspected Immunodeficiency Medical History Physical Examination Laboratory Tests Evaluation of Humoral Immunity Evaluation of T-Cell–Mediated Immunity Evaluation of the Complement System Evaluation of Phagocyte Function Genetic Testing Neonatal Screening for T-Cell Deficiencies Management Selected Primary Antibody Deficiencies X-Linked Agammaglobulinemia Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Immunoglobulin Deficiency With Increased IgM Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Common Variable Immunodeficiency Disease Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis IgA Deficiency Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Transient Hypogammaglobulinemia of Infancy Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis IgG Subclass “Deficiency” Selected Primary Combined Immune Deficiencies Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis DiGeorge Syndrome Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Ataxia-Telangiectasia Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Primary Complement Deficiencies Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Primary Phagocyte Deficiencies Quantitative Phagocyte Abnormalities Chronic Granulomatous Disease Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Clinical Features Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Other Primary Phagocyte Deficiencies Other Innate Immunity Deficiency Diseases Associations Between Specific Pathogens and PIDDs Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 68 The Febrile Neutropenic Patient Epidemiology of Fever and Neutropenia Bacterial Pathogens Fungal Pathogens Viral Pathogens Fever and Neutropenia of Unknown Origin Risk Stratification Risk Stratification at Initial Presentation Risk Stratification for Invasive Fungal Disease History and Physical Exam Initial Diagnostic Evaluation Initial Therapy for Fever and Neutropenia Diagnostic Evaluation for Persistent Fever and Neutropenia Therapeutic Adjustments for Prolonged Fever and Neutropenia Adjustment of Empiric Antibiotic Therapy Initiation of Antifungal Therapy Prevention Measures Antibacterial Prophylaxis Antifungal Prophylaxis Hospital Infection Control Practices New References Since the Seventh Edition References 69 Opportunistic Infections in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Epidemiology Phase I: Preengraftment (<30 Days) Phase II: Early Postengraftment (30 to 100 Days) Phase III: Late Postengraftment (>100 Days) Major Types of Opportunistic Infections After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation Bacterial Classic Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria Clostridium difficile Encapsulated Organisms Mycobacteria Fungal Candida Aspergillus Rare Fungi Pneumocystis jiroveci Viral Herpes Family Viruses Herpes simplex virus. Cytomegalovirus. Epstein-barr virus. Varicella zoster virus. Human herpesvirus–6. Other Double-Stranded DNA Viruses Adenovirus. Human polyomavirus type I. Respiratory Viruses Influenza. Respiratory syncytial virus. Other Respiratory Viruses Enteric Viruses Protozoa Toxoplasma gondii Strongyloides stercoralis Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis Vaccinations After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant New References Since the Seventh Edition References 70 Infections in Pediatric Heart Transplantation Pretransplantation Evaluation Surgical Prophylactic Antibiotics Immediate Postoperative Infections Common Infections Sternal Wounds and Mediastinitis Other Infections Encountered During the First Postoperative Month Herpes Simplex Legionella pneumophila Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections Between the First and Sixth Postoperative Months Cytomegalovirus Epstein-Barr Virus Toxoplasma gondii Aspergillus fumigatus Infections After the Sixth Postoperative Month Nocardia asteroides Pneumocystis jiroveci Streptococcus pneumoniae Other Viruses Immunosuppressive Agents and Antibiotics Immunizations New References Since the Seventh Edition References 71 Infections in Pediatric Lung Transplantation Immunosuppression and Timing of Infection Overview of Infections and Antibiotic Use in Solid-Organ Transplantation Sites of Infection Thoracic Cavity: Respiratory Tract Infections, Including Pneumonia and Anastomotic Site Infections Bloodstream Infections Selected Pathogens Bacteria Pseudomonas Aeruginosa and Burkholderia Cepacia Complex Multidrug-Drug Resistant Gram-Negative Organisms Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections Fungal Infections Aspergillus Candida Cryptococcus Neoformans and Gattii Pneumocystis Jiroveci (Formerly P. Carinii) Endemic Mycoses Emerging Fungi Viral Infections Cytomegalovirus Epstein-Barr Virus/Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder Other Herpesviruses: Herpes Simplex Viruses Types 1 and 2, Varicella-Zoster Virus, Human Herpesviruses Types 6, 7, and 8 Community-Acquired Respiratory Viruses: Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Parainfluenza Virus, Human Metapneumovirus, Influenza, and Adenovirus Donor-Derived and Zoonotic Infections: Rabies, West Nile Virus, Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus, and Bordetella New References Since the Seventh Edition References 72 Opportunistic Infections in Liver and Intestinal Transplantation Predisposing Factors Pretransplant Factors Intraoperative Factors Posttransplant Factors Timing of Infections Early Infections (0 to 30 Days) Intermediate Period (31 to 180 Days) Late Infections (Greater Than 180 Days) Infections Occurring Throughout the Postoperative Course Bacterial and Fungal Infections Liver Transplantation Intestinal Transplantation Viral Infections Cytomegalovirus Epstein-Barr Virus Other Herpesviruses Adenovirus Common Community-Acquired Viruses Other Viruses Opportunistic Infections Management Pretransplant Evaluation Prophylactic Regimens Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 73 Opportunistic Infections in Kidney Transplantation Pretransplant Evaluation Posttransplant Infectious Complications Infections Occurring During the Early Posttransplant Period Wound Infections Urinary Tract Infections Pneumonia Bacteremia, Fungemia, and Sepsis Other Bacterial Diseases Viral Infections Herpes simplex virus. Other viruses. Noninfectious Causes of Fever Infections Occurring During the Middle Posttransplant Period Herpesviruses Cytomegalovirus. Epstein-barr virus. Varicella zoster virus. Human herpesviruses types 6, 7, and 8. Polyomaviruses and Papillomaviruses Polyomaviruses. Papillomaviruses. Adenoviruses Human Erythrovirus (Parvovirus B19) West Nile Virus Zika Virus Mycoplasma Bacterial and Mycobacterial Diseases Nocardia Fungal Diseases Parasitic Infections Infections Occurring During the Late Posttransplant Period New References Since the Seventh Edition References 74 Infections Related to Prosthetic or Artificial Devices Interaction of the Host With a Prosthetic Device Interaction of Microorganisms With a Prosthetic Device Tissue Expanders Cochlear Implants Ocular Prostheses Orbital Implants Intraocular Lenses Contact Lenses Left Ventricular Assist Devices Microbiology of Left Ventricular Assist Device Infections Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation Circuits Permanent Cardiac Pacemaker and Implantable Cardioverter- Defibrillator Infections Permanent Cardiac Pacemaker Infections Microbiology Clinical and Laboratory Findings Management and Treatment of Infection Infection of Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators Microbiology Management Prosthetic Joint and Orthopedic Implant Infections Risk Factors Microbiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Studies Treatment Prevention Cerebrospinal Fluid Shunts Epidemiology Etiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Complications Prognosis Prevention Intracranial Pressure Monitors Epidemiology Etiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prophylaxis Intrathecal Pump Infusion Devices Epidemiology Etiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prophylaxis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 75 Infections Related to Craniofacial Surgical Procedures Procedures and Infections Microbiology Preoperative Preparation, Intraoperative Irrigation, and Perioperative Antibiotic Therapy Evaluation Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 76 Infections in Burn Patients Burn Wound Burn Wound Depth Cytologic Findings Local Tissue Changes Burn Inflammation Inhalation Injury Inflammatory and Immune Responses in Burns The Cytokine Response Neutrophils Complements Macrophages T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity B Lymphocytes and Humoral Immunity Burn Wound Microbiology Gram-Positive Bacteria Gram-Negative Bacteria Fungi Viruses Parasites Clinical Manifestations Local Signs Systemic Signs Biomarkers of Infection and Sepsis Complications of Infection Microbiologic Investigations Quantitative Burn Wound Cultures by Biopsy Histologic Procedures Bronchoalveolar Lavage Local and Systemic Viral Infection Prevention and Treatment of Infection Wound Dressing Topical Antimicrobial Agents Silver Sulfadiazine (Silvadene, SSD, Thermazene, Flamazine, Burnazine) Cerium Nitrate–Silver Sulfadiazine (Flammacerium) Silver Nitrate Mafenide Acetate (Sulfamylon) Membrane Dressings Topical Antibiotics Nystatin (Mycostatin, Nilstat) Sodium Hypochlorite (0.025% Heggers Solution) Povidone-Iodine (Betadine) Chlorhexidine Citric Acid Subeschar Antibiotics Systemic Antiinfective Agents Probiotics Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant, Gram-Negative Bacteria Treatment of Viral Infections Antibiotic Prophylaxis Wound Excision and Grafting Gut Support and Decontamination Immunomodulators Infection Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 15 ■ Unclassified Infectious Diseases 77 Kawasaki Disease History Epidemiology Sources of Epidemiologic Data Incidence Rates Gender Race or Ethnic Background Age Recurrent Kawasaki Disease Family Cases Epidemics and Outbreaks Geography Seasonality Communicability Other Risk Factors Etiology Genetic Susceptibility Pathology and Pathogenesis Relationship With Infantile Periarteritis Nodosa Pathologic Features of Kawasaki Disease Clinical Manifestations Clinical Phases of Illness Incomplete or Atypical Kawasaki Disease Laboratory Findings Immunologic Findings Management Treatment During the Acute Stage Initial Therapy Adjunctive Primary Therapy Rescue Therapy for IVIG Treatment Failures Sequelae Management Beyond the Acute Stage Complications Myocardial Infarction Other Cardiovascular Complications Peripheral Gangrene Nonvascular Complications Long-Term Follow-Up and Prognosis Long-Term Management Patients With No Evidence of Coronary Artery Abnormalities at Any Time (Risk Level I) Patients With Dilation (z ≥2 but <2.5, or >1 Decrease in z During Follow-up; Risk Level II) Patients With Small (≥ 2.5 to <5) Coronary Aneurysm in One or More Coronary Arteries (Risk Level III) Patients With Medium Aneurysms (z-score ≥5 to <10, with Luminal Dimension <8 mm; Risk Level IV) Patients With Large and Giant Coronary Artery Aneurysms (z-score ≥10 or ≥8 mm) and/or Obstructive Lesions (Risk Level V) New References Since the Seventh Edition References 78 Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (Systemic Exertion Intolerance Disease) Historical Overview Epidemiology Etiology and Pathogenesis Infection Immunologic Dysfunction Genetic Components Clinical Manifestations Neurologic Factors Endocrinologic Factors Cardiovascular Factors Sleep Physiology Psychological Factors Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Management Prognosis and Future Directions New References Since the Seventh Edition References 16 ■ Bacterial Infections 79 Nomenclature for Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection I Gram-Positive Cocci 80 Staphylococcus aureus Infections (Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci) Structure Capsule Protein A Extracellular Products Hemolysins and Leukocidins Enzymes Epidermolytic Toxins Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin Type 1 Enterotoxins Staphylococcus aureus Microbial Surface Components Recognizing Adhesive Matrix Molecules Regulation Staphylococcal Small Colony Variants Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec Typing Methods Staphylococcus aureus Clones in the Hospital and in the Community Genomes Epidemiology Host Defenses Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment Antibiotics for Staphylococcus aureus Infections Management of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 81 Coagulase-Negative Staphylococcal Infections Historical Background Microbiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Bacteremia Neonatal Bacteremia Bacteremia in Immunocompromised Patients Indwelling Medical Devices Intravascular Catheter-Related Infections Central Nervous System Shunts Peritoneal Dialysis Catheters Prosthetic Valves Other Indwelling Medical Devices Native Valve Endocarditis Surgical Site Infections Urinary Tract Infections Miscellaneous Infections Treatment Prevention Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 82 Group A, Group C, and Group G β-Hemolytic Streptococcal Infections Organism Transmission and Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Streptococcal Upper Respiratory Tract Carrier State Treatment Prevention Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated With Streptococcal Infections Proposed Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Arguments Against PANDAS From PANDAS to PANS Group C and Group G Streptococcal Infections Organisms Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 83 Group B Streptococcal Infections History Microbiology Isolation and Identification Serologic Classification and Antigenic Structure Extracellular Products Antimicrobial Susceptibility Epidemiology Maternal Colonization Infant Colonization Incidence of Disease Risk Factors for Infant Disease Capsular Polysaccharide Types Causing Disease Pathogenesis Maternal Factors Bacterial Factors Infant Host Factors Clinical Manifestations Early-Onset Disease Late-Onset Disease Late, Late-Onset Disease Septic Arthritis and Osteomyelitis Cellulitis/Adenitis Other Manifestations Recurrent Infections Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Laboratory Studies Differential Diagnosis Treatment Empirical Treatment Specific Treatment Supportive Treatment Adjunctive Treatment Recurrent Infections Prognosis Prevention Intrapartum Antibiotic Prophylaxis Maternal Prophylaxis Infant Chemoprophylaxis Immunoprophylaxis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 84 Enterococcal and Viridans Streptococcal Infections 84A ■ Enterococcal Infections Enterococcal Infections Microbiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Virulence Clinical Manifestations Urinary Tract Infection Endocarditis Bacteremia Intraabdominal Infections Meningitis Neonatal Infections Septic Arthritis Diagnosis Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Resistance Intrinsic Resistance β-Lactam Antibiotics Aminoglycosides Other Antibiotics Acquired Resistance High-Level Resistance to Aminoglycosides High-Level Resistance to β-Lactams and Production of β-Lactamase Glycopeptide Resistance Resistance to Other Antibiotics Testing for Antimicrobial Resistance in Enterococci Therapy for Enterococcal Infections Treatment of Infections Caused by Antibiotic-Susceptible Enterococci Treatment of Infections Caused by Antibiotic-Resistant Enterococci (Including Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci) Newer Options for Treatment of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcal Infections Prevention of Enterococcal Infections Reversing the Trend Toward Vancomycin and Multiple-Antibiotic Resistance in Enterococci Preventing and Controlling the Spread of Nosocomial Infection by Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci New References Since the Seventh Edition References 84B ■ Viridans Streptococcal Infections Viridans Streptococcal Infections Microbiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Sepsis in Immunocompromised Hosts Neonatal Sepsis, Meningitis, and Other Infections Endocarditis Pneumonia Osteomyelitis and Septic Arthritis Caries Abscesses and Other Infections Diagnosis Antibiotic Susceptibility Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References Viridans Streptococcal Infections 85 Pneumococcal Infections Relevance of Pneumococcal Disease to Child Health Epidemiology Risk Factors for Pneumococcal Infection Demographic Features Age. Gender Race/Ethnicity Seasonality Lack of Breastfeeding Crowding Immunocompromising Conditions Congenital and Acquired Absence of Spleen or Splenic Function Defective Antibody Formation Neutropenia and Neutrophil Dysfunction Genetic Variation in Mannose-Binding Lectin Immunocompetent Conditions Pneumococcal Serotype Pathogenesis Microbiology Structure Cell Wall Structure Peptidoglycan Lipoteichoic Acid Teichoic Acid Surface Proteins Capsule Genome Virulence Factors Capsule Neuraminidases Pneumolysin Surface-Located Choline-Binding Proteins Phase Variation Phosphorylcholine Esterase Pneumococcal Autolysin Cell Wall Stem Peptides Iron Transport IgA Protease Phosphoglucomutase Free Oxygen Radicals Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Plus Hydrogen Oxidase Pyruvate Oxidase Plasminogen Binding and Penetration of the Basement Membrane Hyaluronidase Peptidoglycan N-Acetylglucosamine Deacetylase A Phages Tolerance Respiratory Viral Infections Glycerophosphodiester Phosphodiesterase (GlpQ) Regulatory System 11 ftsY spxB Mutations Diagnostic Microbiology Isolation Identification Detection of Clonality Diagnosis of Pneumococcal Disease Susceptibility Testing Antibiotic Resistance Resistance to Β-Lactam Drugs Resistance to Non–Β-Lactam Drugs Vancomycin Tolerance Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance Host Defenses Anticapsular Serum IgG Antibody Anticapsular IgA Antibody Phagocytosis and Leukocyte IgG Receptors Antibodies to Surface Proteins and Pneumolysin Defense Mechanisms of the Spleen Vitamin A C-Reactive Protein Platelet-Activating Factor Receptors of Airway Epithelial Cells Cytokines l-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) Leukotrienes Human Alveolar Macrophage Binding and Phagolysosomes Intracellular Killing Complement Polymeric Immunoglobulin Receptor Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor Intracellular Signaling Pathways Lactoferrin Mannose-Binding Lectin Ficolin-2 Clinical Syndromes Bacteremia and “Occult” Bacteremia Pneumococcal Sepsis With Purpura Pneumococcal Meningitis Pneumonia Otitis Media Mastoiditis Sinusitis Conjunctivitis Bone and Joint Infections Soft Tissue Infections Peritonitis Endocarditis Pericarditis Infection in Immunocompromised Hosts Treatment Pneumonia Sinusitis Acute Otitis Media Bacteremia Meningitis Prevention Nonimmunologic Strategies Immunoprophylaxis Unconjugated Capsular Polysaccharide Vaccines Conjugated Capsular Polysaccharide Vaccines Conclusions New References Since the Seventh Edition References 86 Miscellaneous Gram-Positive Cocci Leuconostoc Species Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Pediococcus Species Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis Treatment Aerococcus Species Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection II Gram-Negative Cocci 87 Moraxella catarrhalis Microbiology Pathogenesis Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis Treatment Prevention References 88 Meningococcal Disease Microbiology Epidemiology Epidemiology in the United States International Epidemiology Colonization and Carriage Risk Factors for Invasive Disease Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations and Differential Diagnosis Meningococcemia and Meningitis Chronic Meningococcemia Meningococcal Pneumonia Other Meningococcal Syndromes Conjunctivitis Pharyngitis Arthritis Pericarditis and Myocarditis Miscellaneous Meningococcal Infections Prognosis, Morbidity, and Mortality Diagnosis Treatment Experimental and Adjunctive Therapies Control and Prevention Chemoprophylaxis Outbreaks Meningococcal Vaccines Meningococcal Vaccines in the United States Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Meningococcal conjugate vaccines. Recombinant MenB vaccines. US recommendations for use of meningococcal vaccines. Meningococcal Vaccines Outside the United States Meningococcal A vaccine. Meningococcal B vaccines. Meningococcal C vaccines. Future for Meningococcal Vaccines Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 89 Gonococcal Infections Epidemiology Microbiology Culture and Speciation From Clinical Specimens Genetic Characteristics Strain Typing Pathogenesis Invasion of Mucosal Epithelial Cells Resistance to Phagocytosis and Intracellular Killing Specific Virulence Factors Pili Opacity-Associated Proteins Porin Protein Iron Metabolism Immunoglobulin A Protease Lipo-Oligosaccharide Cell Wall Peptidoglycan and Lytic Transglycosylases Reduction Modifiable Protein Ribosomal Protein L12 Type IV Secretion System Characteristics of Strains Causing Disseminated Disease Host Response Perinatal Gonococcal Infections Gonococcal Ophthalmia Neonatorum Epidemiology Prevention Silver Nitrate and Gonococcal Ophthalmia Neonatorum Clinical Features Gonococcal Scalp Abscess and Other Local Infections Systemic Disease in the Neonate Gonococcal Disease Beyond the Neonatal Period Lower Genital Tract Infection in Prepubertal Girls Lower Genital Tract Infection in Postmenarchal Females Upper Genital Tract Infection in Postmenarchal Females Genital Tract Infection in Males Disseminated Disease Anorectal Gonorrhea Pharyngeal Gonorrhea Conjunctivitis Beyond Infancy Other Forms of Gonococcal Disease Diagnostic Testing Culture Adolescents Prepubertal Children Gram-Stained Smears Nonculture Diagnostics Medicolegal Issues Related to Diagnostic Tests Proper Collection of Clinical Specimens Antimicrobial Resistance Among Gonococci Treatment Treatment of Infants Born to Mothers With Gonococcal Infection Treatment of Neonates With Gonococcal Infection Disseminated Gonococcal Infection or Scalp Abscess Treatment of Gonococcal Infections Beyond the Neonatal Period Uncomplicated Gonococcal Infections Disseminated Gonococcal Infection Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Severe Allergies to Cephalosporins Infection With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Concurrent Syphilis Infection Pregnancy Presumptive Treatment of Chlamydia Trachomatis Coinfection Follow-Up Gonococcal Infection and Sexual Abuse of Children Prevention and Control of Gonococcal Infections Prevention of Neonatal Infection Vaccine Development New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection III Gram-Positive Bacilli 90 Diphtheria Etiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Prevention Treatment Supportive Treatment Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition Additional Reading References 91 Anthrax Historical Aspects Bacteriology Epidemiology and Transmission Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Cutaneous Anthrax Inhalation Anthrax Gastrointestinal Anthrax Injection Anthrax Meningitis Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention and Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 92 Bacillus cereus and Other Bacillus Species Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Food Poisoning Diarrheal Syndrome Emetic Syndrome Extraintestinal Infections Eye Infection Wound and Soft Tissue Infections Skeletal Infections Bacteremia and Septicemia Pneumonia Infection of the Central Nervous System Liver Failure Pseudoinfections Complications Diagnosis Treatment Prevention and Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 93 Arcanobacterium haemolyticum History Organism Microbiology Toxin Production Antimicrobial Susceptibility Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Pharyngitis Skin Infections Sinusitis/Orbital Cellulitis Other Manifestations Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 94 Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Keywords: Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 95 Listeriosis Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 96 Tuberculosis Stages: Exposure, Infection, and Disease Epidemiology Incidence and Prevalence Transmission Mycobacteriology Resistance and Immunity Pathogenesis Portal of Entry Incubation Period “Timetable” of Tuberculosis Clinical Forms of Tuberculosis in Children Endothoracic Asymptomatic Tuberculosis Infection Endothoracic Primary Complex and Its Complications Pleural Effusion Progressive Pulmonary Tuberculosis Chronic Pulmonary Tuberculosis Myocardial and Pericardial Tuberculosis Lymphohematogenous Spread Extrathoracic Spread Central Nervous System Tuberculosis Cutaneous Tuberculosis Skeletal Tuberculosis Tuberculosis of the Superficial Lymph Nodes (Scrofula) Ocular Tuberculosis Tuberculosis of the Middle Ear Gastrointestinal and Abdominal Tuberculosis Renal Tuberculosis Dialysis- and Renal Transplant–Associated Tuberculosis Genital Tuberculosis Inoculation Tuberculosis Perinatal Tuberculosis (Congenital and Postnatal) Tuberculosis in Adolescents Tuberculosis and Pregnancy Tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Tuberculosis and Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome Diagnosis Tuberculin Sensitivity and the Skin Test Diagnostic Mycobacteriology in Children Nucleic Acid Amplification Treatment Management of Tuberculous Children Antituberculosis Drugs Microbiologic Basis for Treatment Treatment of the Stages of Tuberculosis Exposure Infection Chemotherapy for Children Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Children Adherence and Directly Observed Therapy Summary of Treatment Recommendations Corticosteroids Activity Isolation Follow-Up Case Reporting Prevention Immunization New References Since the Seventh Edition References 97 Other Mycobacteria Epidemiology Microbiology Manifestations of Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infection in Children Lymphadenitis Pulmonary Infections Skin Infections Mycobacterium marinum Mycobacterium ulcerans Other Mycobacteria in Skin Disease Other Sites of Infection Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Organisms Seen in Children Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare Complex Mycobacterium scrofulaceum Mycobacterium kansasii Mycobacterium malmoense Rapidly Growing Mycobacteria New References Since the Seventh Edition References 98 Leprosy and Buruli Ulcer Leprosy Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Immunity Histopathology Indeterminate leprosy. Tuberculoid leprosy. Borderline leprosy. Lepromatous leprosy. Clinical Manifestations Indeterminate Leprosy Tuberculoid Leprosy Borderline Leprosy Lepromatous Leprosy Neuritic Leprosy Leprosy and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Reactions Reversal Reactions Erythema Nodosum Leprosum Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Prognosis Treatment Dapsone Rifampin Clofazimine Fluoroquinolone Therapy Multidrug Therapy Other Drugs Under Investigation Treatment of Reactions Reversal (type 1) reaction. Erythema nodosum leprosum (type 2) reaction. Prevention Chemoprophylaxis Vaccination, Immunoprophylaxis, and Immunotherapy Elimination Buruli Ulcer Organism Transmission and Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Incubation and Forms of Lesions Papule. Nodule. Plaque. Edematous form. Ulcerative forms. Bone Involvement Contiguous osteomyelitis. Metastatic osteomyelitis. Complications. Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Buruli Ulcer Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Prognosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 99 Nocardia Keywords: Organism Epidemiology, Transmission, and Pathogenesis Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 100 Corynebacterium and Rhodococcus Abstract Keywords: Corynebacterium Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Rhodococcus Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection IV Gram-Negative Bacilli 101 Citrobacter Keywords Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 102 Enterobacter Keywords Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 103 Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli Epidemiology Urinary Tract Infection Bacteremia and Sepsis Meningitis Peritonitis Pneumonia, Endocarditis, and Osteomyelitis Pathogenesis Urinary Tract Infection Bacteremia Meningitis Clinical Presentation Urinary Tract Infection Bacteremia and Sepsis Meningitis Intraabdominal Infection Pneumonia Diagnosis General Urinary Tract Infection Other Infections Treatment General Urinary Tract Infection Other Infections Antibiotic Susceptibility Outcomes General Urinary Tract Infection Other Infections New References Since the Seventh Edition References 104 Diarrhea-Causing and Dysentery-Causing Escherichia coli Causative Organisms Transmission and Epidemiology Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli Diffusely Adherent Escherichia coli Clinical Manifestations Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli Diffusely Adherent Escherichia coli Pathogenesis Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli Diffusely Adherent Escherichia coli Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Prognosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 105 Klebsiella Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 106 Morganella morganii History Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 107 Proteus Abstract Keywords: Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 108 Providencia Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 109 Shigella Historical Background Bacteriology Serogroup Classification Epidemiology Pathogenesis Invasiveness and Toxin Production Immune Response Pathology Clinical Manifestations Extraintestinal Manifestations and Complications Shigellosis in the Neonatal Period Shigellosis in Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Laboratory Findings Diagnosis Isolation Techniques Other Diagnostic Methods Differential Diagnosis Treatment Fluid Administration Antibiotic Therapy Adjunctive Therapy Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 110 Serratia Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 111 Salmonella Keywords: Microbiology Taxonomy and Nomenclature Epidemiology Nontyphoidal Salmonella Public Health Issues Significance of Animal Reservoirs and Other Food Sources Humans as a Reservoir Bacterial Characteristics Favoring Survival Relationship of Age to Risk for Disease Seasonality Inoculum Size Required to Cause Disease Antibiotic Selection Pressure Salmonella Ser. Typhi Reservoir Relevance of Inoculum Size to Disease Antibiotic Resistance Pathophysiology Host Factors Immune Response Clinical Manifestations Acute Asymptomatic Infection Acute Gastroenteritis Bacteremia With or Without Metastatic Focal Infection Enteric Fever Asymptomatic Chronic Carrier State Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Gastroenteritis Extraintestinal Infections Typhoid Fever Chronic Carriers Prevention Public Health Measures Personal Hygienic Measures Infection Control Nursery Outbreaks Breast-Feeding Vaccination Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 112 Plague (Yersinia pestis) History and Epidemiology Bacteriology Transmission Host Vector Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention and Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 113 Other Yersinia Species Historical Aspects Microbiology Genomes and Typing of Yersinia Strains Epidemiology Yersinia enterocolitica Animal Reservoirs Foods and Water Incubation, Carriage, and Transmission in Humans Yersinia Enterocolitica and Blood Transfusion–Related Sepsis Prevention of Disease Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Pathology Yersinia enterocolitica Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Pathogenesis Bacterial Determinants of Mucosal Invasion Yersinia Adhesin A Virulence Plasmid and Type III Secretion System Summary of Yersinia Pathogenesis Iron Metabolism and Virulence Enterotoxin Production Gastric Acidity as a Protective Host Factor Clinical Manifestations Yersinia enterocolitica Enterocolitis Pseudoappendicitis-Mesenteric Adenitis Asymptomatic Infection Other Presentations of Acute Infection Underlying Conditions That Predispose to Bacteremia Postinfectious Syndromes Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Kawasaki Disease–Like Illness Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Serology Molecular Techniques Treatment Vaccines Other Yersinia Species New References Since the Seventh Edition References 114 Miscellaneous Enterobacteriaceae Edwardsiella tarda Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Treatment Hafnia alvei Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Treatment Pantoea agglomerans Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 115 Aeromonas Keywords Epidemiology Etiologic Agent Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 116 Pasteurella multocida The Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Animal Infection Human Infection Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Treatment Prognosis and Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 117 Cholera History Microbiology Pathogenesis Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Laboratory Findings and Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 118 Vibrio parahaemolyticus Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Complications Diagnosis Treatment Prevention and Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 119 Vibrio vulnificus Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 120 Miscellaneous Non-Enterobacteriaceae Fermentative Bacilli Chromobacterium Violaceum Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Plesiomonas Shigelloides Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Other Pasteurella Organisms Bacteriology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 121 Acinetobacter Organism Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Intracranial Infection Bacteremia Respiratory Tract Infections Miscellaneous Infections Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 122 Achromobacter (Alcaligenes) Keywords Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 123 Eikenella corrodens Keywords: Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 124 Elizabethkingia and Chryseobacterium Species Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 125 Pseudomonas and Related Genera Etiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Previously Healthy Children Burn Wounds Cystic Fibrosis Malignancy, Immunosuppression, and Other Predisposing Conditions Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Selection of Antimicrobial Therapy Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance and In Vitro Susceptibility Testing Prevention Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 126 Stenotrophomonas (Xanthomonas) maltophilia Bacteriology and Pathogenesis Epidemiology Pathogenesis Diagnosis and Clinical Syndromes Prevention Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection V Gram-Negative Coccobacilli 127 Aggregatibacter Species Aggregatibacter Actinomycetemcomitans New References Since the Seventh Edition References 128 Brucellosis Keywords History Etiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Relapse and Chronic Brucellosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 129 Pertussis and Other Bordetella Infections History Microbiology Etiology of Pertussis (Whooping Cough) Antigenic and Biologically Active Components of Bordetella Pertussis Pertussis Toxin Adenylate Cyclase Toxin Fimbriae Filamentous Hemagglutinin Autotransporters Pertactin Other Autotransporters Lipopolysaccharide (Endotoxin) Polysaccharide Capsule Epidemiology Reported Pertussis Cases Incidence Morbidity and Mortality Season, Geography, Race, Ethnicity, and Sex Transmission Bordetella pertussis Infection Pathology Pathogenesis and Immunity Clinical Manifestations Classic Illness Mild Illness and Asymptomatic Infection Infants Adults Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Vaccine Efficacy Whole-Cell Vaccines Acellular Vaccines Adverse Events Whole-Cell Vaccines Acellular Vaccines Schedules and Contraindications Isolation and Prophylactic Measures Other Bordetella Infections Bordetella parapertussis Infection Bordetella bronchiseptica Infection Bordetella hinzii Infection Bordetella holmesii Infection Bordetella trematum Infection Bordetella ansorpii Infection Bordetella petrii Infection Bordetella avium Infection New References Since the Seventh Edition References 130 Klebsiella granulomatis Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 131 Campylobacter jejuni Keywords History Organism Epidemiology Pathology Pathogenesis Immunity Clinical Manifestations Enteritis Extraintestinal Infections Perinatal Infections Immunoreactive and Other Complications Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 132 Tularemia History Etiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Bacterial and Host Interactions Invasion and Disease Production Clinical Manifestations Ulceroglandular and Glandular Tularemia Oropharyngeal Tularemia Oculoglandular Tularemia Typhoidal Tularemia Pneumonic Tularemia Additional Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 133 Haemophilus influenzae Keywords MICROBIOLOGY Morphologic and Cultural Characteristics Capsular Polysaccharides Noncapsular Cell Wall Antigens: Proteins Noncapsular Cell Wall Antigens: Lipooligosaccharide IgA Proteases Population Structure Antibiotic Resistance PATHOGENESIS Acquisition and Carriage of Organisms Pathogenesis of Mucosal Infections Pathogenesis of Invasive Disease Meningitis IMMUNOLOGY Anticapsular Antibody Class- and Subclass-Specific Antibody Genetic Factors Complement Phagocytosis EPIDEMIOLOGY Haemophilus influenzae Type b Non–type b Encapsulated Haemophilus influenzae Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS Bacteremia Meningitis Pneumonia Epiglottitis Joint Infection Cellulitis Pericarditis Neonatal Disease Other Invasive Infections Diseases Caused by Non–Type b H. influenzae Mucosal Infections DIAGNOSIS TREATMENT Invasive Disease Noninvasive Disease PREVENTION Active Immunization Passive Immunization Impact of H. influenzae Type b Vaccination Chemoprophylaxis CONCLUSIONS Acknowledgements New References Since the Seventh Edition References 134 Other Haemophilus Species (Ducreyi, Haemolyticus, Influenzae Biogroup Aegyptius, Parahaemolyticus, and Parainfluenzae) and Aggregatibacter (Haemophilus) aphrophilus Keywords Aggregatibacter (Haemophilus) aphrophilus Bacteriology Epidemiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Treatment Haemophilus ducreyi Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Haemophilus influenzae Biogroup Aegyptius (Haemophilus aegyptius) Bacteriology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Treatment Haemophilus parainfluenzae Bacteriology Epidemiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 135 Helicobacter pylori Background Microbiology and Pathophysiology Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Persistence and Resistance Methods of Testing Resistance Gastric biopsy culture. Molecular methods. Future Directions New References Since The Seventh Edition References 136 Kingella kingae History Microbiology Epidemiology Carriage and Transmission Invasive Disease Day Care Facility Attendance Pathogenesis and Immunity Clinical Manifestations Osteoarticular Infections Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 137 Legionnaires’ Disease, Pontiac Fever, and Related Illnesses History Etiologic Agent Epidemiology Incidence and Frequency Disease Outbreaks Pathology, Pathogenesis, and Immunity Clinical Manifestations of Legionnaires’ Disease Signs and Symptoms Radiographic Findings Laboratory Findings Treatment Response to Treatment Differential Diagnosis Clinical Syndromes Caused by Other Legionella Species Pontiac Fever Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acknowledgment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 138 Streptobacillus moniliformis (Rat-Bite Fever) History Epidemiology Bacteriology Clinical Manifestations Haverhill Fever Pathophysiology and Pathology Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Prevention Acknowledgment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 139 Bartonella Infections Definition Microbiology Cat-Scratch Disease Etiology Transmission Epidemiology Pathobiology Clinical Manifestations and Course Endocarditis Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Bartonellosis (Carrión Disease) Epidemiology Pathobiology Clinical Manifestations Trench Fever Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Bacillary Angiomatosis and Bacillary Peliosis Hepatis Etiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Cat-Scratch Disease Endocarditis Bartonellosis Trench Fever Bacillary Angiomatosis and Bacillary Peliosis Hepatis Treatment Cat-Scratch Disease Endocarditis Bartonellosis Trench Fever Bacillary Angiomatosis and Bacillary Peliosis Hepatis Prognosis and Prevention New References Since The Seventh Edition References Subsection VI Treponemataceae 140 Lyme Disease Organisms Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Early Localized Disease Erythema Migrans Early Disseminated Disease Multiple Erythema Migrans Neurologic Manifestations Carditis Acute Generalized Illness Borrelia mayonii Infection Late Disseminated Disease Arthritis Late Neurologic Disease Other Manifestations Asymptomatic Seroconversion Acrodermatitis Chronica Atrophicans Borrelial Lymphocytoma Coinfection With Other Ixodes Tick-Borne Pathogens Lyme Disease in Pregnancy Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention and Management of Ixodes Tick Bites Prevention of Tick Bites Preventing Infection After an Ixodes Tick Bite New References Since the Seventh Edition References 141 Relapsing Fever Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 142 Leptospirosis History Epidemiology Animal Reservoirs Transmission of Leptospires to Humans Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Anicteric Leptospirosis Icteric Leptospirosis (Weil Syndrome) Severe Pulmonary Form of Leptospirosis Indicators of Prognosis Laboratory Diagnosis Identification by Culture Identification by Means Other Than Culture Serologic Tests Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 143 Spirillum minus (Rat-Bite Fever) Bacteriology Epidemiology and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment References 144 Syphilis Organism Transmission Acquired Syphilis Congenital Syphilis Epidemiology Pathology Pathogenesis and Immune Response Treponemal Virulence–Associated Factors Host Response Clinical Manifestations Acquired Syphilis Primary Disease Secondary Disease Latent Disease Tertiary Disease Neurosyphilis Cardiovascular Syphilis Syphilis in Pregnancy Congenital Syphilis Early Congenital Syphilis Skeletal system. Rhinitis. Rash. Fissures and mucous patches. Hematologic findings. Central nervous system involvement. Pneumonia. Hepatosplenomegaly. Ectodermal changes. Other findings. Late Congenital Syphilis Dentition. Interstitial keratitis. Central nervous system. Eighth cranial nerve deafness. Bone and joint changes. Cutaneous lesions. Diagnosis Serologic Tests Nontreponemal Tests Treponemal Tests IgM Tests Polymerase Chain Reaction Assay False-Positive Reactions Acute biologic false-positive reactions. Chronic biologic false-positive reactions. Evaluation and Diagnosis of Early Congenital Syphilis Treatment Acquired Syphilis Syphilis in Pregnancy Congenital Syphilis Infants With Proven or Highly Probable Disease Infants With a Normal Physical Examination and a Serum Quantitative Nontreponemal Serologic Titer the Same or Less Than Fourfold the Maternal Titer Follow-Up Evaluation Prevention New References Since The Seventh Edition References 145 Nonvenereal Treponematoses Keywords Pinta Biology and Immunology Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Prognosis Yaws Biology and Immunology Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Prognosis Endemic Syphilis Biology and Immunology Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Prognosis Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Future Considerations New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection VII Anaerobic Bacteria 146 Clostridial Intoxication and Infection Botulism Epidemiology and Etiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Clostridial Infections Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Gas Gangrene or Myonecrosis Soft Tissue Infection Bacteremia and Sepsis Septic Abortion and Puerperal Sepsis Neonatal Sepsis and Meningitis Pseudomembranous Colitis (C. difficile) Food Poisoning and Other Enteric Infections Miscellaneous Infections Caused by Clostridia Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 147 Infant Botulism Keywords History Etiologic Agent Pathogenesis Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Differential Diagnosis and Diagnosis Treatment Outcome and Prognosis Prevention Suggested Reading New References Since the Seventh Edition References 148 Tetanus Keywords History Microbiology Epidemiology Source of Exposure Incidence Pathogenesis Pathophysiology Motor End Plates in Skeletal Muscle Spinal Cord Brain Sympathetic Nervous System Clinical Manifestations Local Tetanus Generalized Tetanus Injection Drug Users Neonatal Tetanus Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Cause of Death Prevention Active Immunization Tetanus Prophylaxis in Wound Management Neonatal Tetanus New References Since the Seventh Edition References 149 Actinomycosis Microbiology Pathogenesis Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 150 Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Prevotella, and Porphyromonas Bacteriology and Taxonomy Bacteroides Species Prevotella Species and Porphyromonas Species Fusobacterium Species Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Bacteremia and Endocarditis Head and Neck Infections Odontogenic Infections Perioral Infections Tonsillitis Lemierre Disease Deep Neck Infections Otitis Media and Mastoiditis Rhinosinusitis Central Nervous System Intraabdominal Infections Skin and Soft Tissue Infections Bone and Joint Infections Pleuropulmonary Infections Diagnosis Treatment Penicillins and Penicillin/β-Lactamase Inhibitor Combinations Cephalosporins Carbapenems Metronidazole Clindamycin Quinolones Tetracyclines Oxazolidinones Prevention Acknowledgment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 17 ■ Viral Infections 151 Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses References Subsection I DNA—Parvoviridae 152 Human Parvovirus B19 Keywords: History Properties of the Virus Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Erythema Infectiosum Other Exanthems Aplastic Crisis Other Hematologic Manifestations Arthritis and Arthralgia Infection in Immunocompromised Patients Intrauterine Infection Neurologic Illness Myocarditis Acute Hepatitis Other Illnesses Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention New References Since Seventh Edition References 153 Human Bocaviruses History Properties Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Respiratory Illness Upper Respiratory Tract Infections Lower Respiratory Tract Infections Gastrointestinal Illness Infections in Immunocompromised Patients Other Clinical Findings Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection II DNA—Polyomaviridae 154 Human Polyomaviruses History Virology Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Central Nervous System Manifestations Urinary Tract Manifestations Cutaneous Manifestations Pulmonary Manifestations Other Manifestations Malignancies Laboratory Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 155 Human Papillomaviruses History Virology Epidemiology Female-Specific HPV-Associated Malignancies Male-Specific HPV-Associated Malignancies HPV-Associated Malignancies in Males and Females HPV-Associated Oral and Oropharyngeal Cancers HPV-Associated Malignancies in Persons With HIV HPV and Sexual Abuse Clinical Manifestations Cutaneous Warts Epidermodysplasia Verruciformis Infections of Male and Female Genital Tracts Female-Specific Disease Male-Specific Disease Recurrent Respiratory Papillomatosis Upper Respiratory Tract Papillomas Gastrointestinal Disease Oropharyngeal Cancer Anal Cancer Laboratory Diagnosis Electron Microscopy Cell Culture Serology Cytology Colposcopy Histology Molecular Methods That Detect Human Papillomavirus DNA In Situ Hybridization Treatment Prevention Quadrivalent HPV Vaccine Quadrivalent HPV Vaccine Efficacy Females. Males. Bivalent HPV Vaccine Bivalent Vaccine Efficacy 9-Valent Vaccine Two-Dose HPV Vaccination Regimens Population Effectiveness of HPV Vaccines HPV Vaccine Safety HPV Vaccine Immunogenicity in Immunocompromised Patients Vaccine Limitations New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection III DNA—Adenoviridae 156 Adenoviruses Keywords: History Properties of the Virus Classification Physical Properties Antigenic Composition Tissue Culture Growth Virus Multiplication Animal Susceptibility Adeno-Associated Viruses Epidemiology General Prevalence Age, Incidence, and Prevalence Military Recruits Geographic Distribution Seasonal Patterns Host and Social Factors Spread of Infection Pathogenesis and Pathology Viral Infection Coinfections Pathology Immunologic Events Clinical Manifestations Respiratory Tract Common Cold Nasopharyngitis, Pharyngitis, and Tonsillitis Acute Respiratory Disease Acute Laryngotracheitis Acute Bronchiolitis Pneumonia Young children. Atypical pneumonia in military recruits. Pertussis-like syndrome. Bronchiolitis obliterans. Unilateral hyperlucent lung. Eye Acute Follicular Conjunctivitis Pharyngoconjunctival Fever Epidemic Keratoconjunctivitis Skin Genitourinary Tract Acute Hemorrhagic Cystitis Nephritis Orchitis Oculogenital Syndrome Hemolytic-Uremic Syndrome Hemorrhagic Fever With Renal Syndrome Gastrointestinal Tract Gastroenteritis Mesenteric Lymphadenitis Intussusception Appendicitis Hepatitis Heart Myocarditis Dilated Cardiomyopathy Pericarditis Nervous System Infection in Immunocompromised Hosts Other Manifestations Arthritis Thyroiditis Adrenal Insufficiency Deafness Obesity Congenital and Neonatal Infections Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection IV DNA—Hepatoviridae 157 Hepatitis B and D Viruses Hepatitis B Virus Biology Molecular Virology Viral Life Cycle Overview Viral binding and cell entry. Genomic Replication Viral Assembly and Release Immunopathogenesis Epidemiology and Transmission Natural History Carcinogenesis Histopathologic Features Biomarkers Imaging Treatment Interferon HBV Polymerase Inhibitors Lamivudine Adefovir Dipivoxil Tenofovir Entecavir Hepatitis B in Special Populations Hepatitis B and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Coinfection Hepatitis B in Solid-Organ Transplant Recipients Immunoprophylaxis Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin Hepatitis B Vaccine Others who should receive hepatitis B vaccine. Vaccine side effects and adverse reactions. Contraindications. Recommendations to Prevent Household Transmission Future Strategies/Targets for Treatment Hepatitis D Virology Epidemiology Immunopathogenesis Diagnosis Clinical Manifestations Treatment Future Therapies Immunoprophylaxis Acknowledgment New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection V DNA—Herpesviridae 158 Herpes Simplex Viruses 1 and 2 The Viruses Transmission Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Gingivostomatitis Pharyngitis, Tonsillitis, Epiglottitis, Supraglottitis, Laryngotracheitis Vulvovaginitis, Genital Herpes Infections Primary Herpetic Skin Infections Infection of the Eye Infections of the Central Nervous System Infection of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Normal Hosts Recurrent Infections Erythema Multiforme HSV Infection in Immunocompromised Hosts Fetus and Newborn Diagnosis Viral Culture Direct Detection of HSV-Infected Cells Polymerase Chain Reaction Assays Serologic Diagnosis Genetic Analysis for Molecular Epidemiology Antiviral Drug Susceptibility Testing Prognosis, Complications, and Sequelae Treatment Oral HSV Infection HSV Keratitis HSV Encephalitis Genital HSV Infection Mucocutaneous HSV Infection in Immunocompromised Hosts Neonatal Herpes Simplex Virus Infection Acyclovir-Resistant HSV Infection Prevention and Infection Control Immunoprophylaxis and Chemoprophylaxis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 159 Cytomegalovirus History Virology Epidemiology Pregnancy Congenital Infection Perinatal Infection Postnatal Infection in Childhood Infection in Adolescents Intrafamilial Transmission Sexual Transmission Nosocomial Health Care−Related Transmission Immunosuppressed Patients Pathology, Pathogenesis, and Immunity Clinical Manifestations Fetal and Congenital Infections Perinatal Infections Mononucleosis Syndrome Interstitial Pneumonitis Retinitis and Other Eye Abnormalities Hepatitis Gastrointestinal Disease Meningoencephalitis and Other Neurologic Disorders Deafness and Other Ear Disorders Myocarditis and Other Cardiovascular Disorders Endocrine System Genitourinary System Skin Unusual Associations Laboratory Diagnosis Detection of the Infectious Agent Serology Laboratory Diagnosis of Specific Clinical Syndromes Pregnancy Congenital Infection Perinatal and Postnatal Infection Cytomegalovirus Syndromes in Immunocompromised Hosts Treatment Prevention Blood Product, Human Milk, and Transplant Donor Selection Passive Immunoprophylaxis Prophylaxis and Early Preemptive Therapy With Antiviral Agents Active Immunization Behavioral Strategies to Prevent Primary Cytomegalovirus Infection in Pregnancy New References Since the Seventh Edition References 160 Epstein-Barr Virus History Virology Structure and Genome Molecular Biology Replication Latency EBNA Latent Membrane Proteins EBERs BHRF1 and BALF1 BARTs MicroRNAs Transformation EBV Genome Variation Immunopathogenesis Infectious Mononucleosis Epstein-Barr Virus–Associated Tumors Histopathology Infectious Mononucleosis Epstein-Barr Virus–Associated Malignant Diseases Other Epstein-Barr Virus–Associated Diseases Epidemiology Seroprevalence Incidence Viral Shedding Transmission Common Modes of Transmission Transmission via Blood Products or Transplanted Organs Intrauterine and Perinatal Transmission Sexual Transmission Nonmalignant Clinical Syndromes Associated With EBV Infection Infectious Mononucleosis Acute Phase Resolution Phase Infectious Mononucleosis in Young Children Disseminated EBV Infection in X-Linked Lymphoproliferative Disease Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Chronic Active Disease Congenital Infection Other Diseases Complications of Infectious Mononucleosis Exanthems Ampicillin Rash Other Exanthems Cardiac Hematologic Hemolytic Anemia Aplastic Anemia Thrombocytopenia Neutropenia Pancytopenia Spleen Gastrointestinal Tract Liver Other Neurologic Encephalitis and Aseptic Meningitis Other CNS Manifestations Non-CNS Neurologic Complications Renal Respiratory Tract Airway Obstruction Neck Abscesses Pulmonary Disease Psychiatric Chronic Fatigue “Alice in Wonderland” Syndrome Miscellaneous Complications Malignant Diseases Associated With Epstein-Barr Virus Burkitt Lymphoma Hodgkin Lymphoma Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease Lymphoproliferative Disease in Other Immunodeficient Patients Other Malignant Diseases Epstein-Barr Virus and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Lymphomas Smooth Muscle Tumor Lymphocytic Interstitial Pneumonitis Oral Hairy Leukoplakia Diagnosis of Infectious Mononucleosis General Laboratory Findings Epstein-Barr Virus Antibodies Epstein-Barr Virus Nucleic Acid (DNA or RNA) Epstein-Barr Virus Proteins Virus Isolation Electron Microscopy Imaging Studies Differential Diagnosis Infectious Mononucleosis Other EBV-Associated Disorders Treatment Infectious Mononucleosis Supportive Care Antiviral Treatment Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Malignant Diseases Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease B-Cell Lymphoma Hodgkin Lymphoma Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Nonmalignant Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Diseases XLP HLH CAEBV Infection HIV-Associated Diseases Prognosis Prevention Vaccine Prevention of Posttransplant Lymphoproliferative Disease New References Since The New Edition References 161 Human Herpesviruses 6A, 6B, 7, and 8 Keywords: Human Herpesviruses 6A, 6B, and 7 Diseases Caused by HHV-6A, HHV-6B, and HHV-7 Neurologic Complications Pathogenesis of HHV-6 and HHV-7 Infection Diagnosis Treatment of HHV-6 Infection Kaposi Sarcoma Herpesvirus (Human Herpesvirus 8) Diseases Caused by Kaposi Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Transmission of HHV-8 Among Children Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Diagnosis and Treatment of HHV-8 Infection New References Since the Seventh Edition References 162 Varicella-Zoster Virus The Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathogenesis Nosocomial Varicella Clinical Manifestations Varicella Complications of Varicella Congenital Varicella Syndrome Zoster Complications of Zoster Diagnosis Clinical Diagnosis of Varicella and Zoster Laboratory Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Passive Immunization Against Varicella Active Immunization Against Varicella Safety Effectiveness Drug Prophylaxis New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection VI DNA—Poxviridae 163 Smallpox (Variola Virus) Keywords History* Etiology Epidemiology Pathology Clinical Manifestations Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Active Immunization Side Effects and Adverse Events of Smallpox Vaccines Smallpox Vaccine Availability New References Since the Seventh Edition References 164 Monkeypox and Other Poxviruses Properties of the Viruses Classification Structure Specific Viruses and Their Illnesses Monkeypox Virus Epidemiology Clinical Features Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Bioterrorism Concerns Cowpox Virus Vaccinia Virus Recombinant Vaccinia Virus Camelpox Orf Virus Other Parapoxviruses Yatapoxviruses Molluscum Contagiosum Virus Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 165 Mimiviruses Structure and Properties Viral Replication Animal Susceptibility Mimivirus Infection in Humans Prevalence of Antibodies to Mimivirus in Patients With Pneumonia Diagnostic Methods Mimivirus as an Emerging Pathogen New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection I RNA—Picornaviridae 166 Enteroviruses, Parechoviruses, and Saffold Viruses History The Viruses Classification Morphology and Replication Replication Characteristics and Host Systems Antigenic Characteristics Host Range Epidemiology Transmission Geographic Distribution and Season Prevalence of Different Types Pathogenesis and Pathology Events During Pathogenesis Factors That Affect Pathogenesis Pathology Coxsackieviruses A Coxsackieviruses B Heart Brain and Spinal Cord Other Organs Echoviruses Enteroviruses Enterovirus D68 Enterovirus 71 Parechoviruses Saffold Virus Polioviruses Clinical Manifestations: Nonpolio Enteroviruses, Parechoviruses, and Saffold Viruses Asymptomatic Infection Nonspecific Febrile Illness Respiratory Manifestations Common Cold Pharyngitis (Pharyngitis, Tonsillitis, Tonsillopharyngitis, and Nasopharyngitis) Other Intraoral Manifestations Herpangina. Acute lymphonodular pharyngitis. Stomatitis and other lesions in the anterior of the mouth. Parotitis Croup Bronchitis (Not Including Enterovirus D68) Bronchiolitis and Infectious Asthma (Not Including Enterovirus D68) Pneumonia (Not Including Enterovirus D68) Enterovirus D68 (Bronchitis, Bronchiolitis, and Pneumonia) Pleurodynia (Bornholm Disease) Gastrointestinal Manifestations Vomiting Diarrhea Constipation Abdominal Pain Peritonitis, Pseudoperitonitis, Appendicitis, Pseudo-obstruction, Mesenteric Adenitis, and Intussusception Hepatitis Pancreatitis Diabetes Mellitus Eye Findings Acute Hemorrhagic Conjunctivitis Conjunctivitis Associated With Other Enteroviral Illness Photophobia Other Eye Findings Cardiovascular Manifestations Pericarditis, Myocarditis, and Dilated Cardiomyopathy Other Cardiac Manifestations Genitourinary Manifestations Orchitis and Epididymitis Nephritis Other Genitourinary Findings Hematologic Findings Muscle and Joint Manifestations Arthritis Myositis Skin Manifestations Coxsackievirus A2 Coxsackievirus A3 Coxsackievirus A4 Coxsackievirus A5 Coxsackievirus A6 Coxsackievirus A7 Coxsackievirus A9 Coxsackievirus A10 Coxsackievirus A16 Coxsackievirus B1 Coxsackievirus B2 Coxsackievirus B3 Coxsackievirus B4 Coxsackievirus B5 Coxsackievirus B6 Echovirus 1 Echovirus 2 Echovirus 3 Echovirus 4 Echovirus 5 Echovirus 6 Echovirus 7 Echovirus 9 Echovirus 11 Echovirus 13 Echovirus 14 Echovirus 16 Echovirus 17 Echovirus 18 Echovirus 19 Echovirus 21 Echovirus 24 Echovirus 25 Echovirus 30 Echovirus 32 Echovirus 33 Enterovirus 71 Parechoviruses Clinical Exanthematous Manifestations and Syndromes Neurologic Manifestations Aseptic Meningitis Encephalitis Paralysis Guillain-Barré Syndrome and Transverse Myelitis Other Neurologic Illnesses Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Sudden Infant Death Chronic Enteroviral Infections in Immunocompromised Patients Congenital Infections Abortion Congenital Malformations Prematurity and Stillbirth Neonatal Infections Epidemiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Inapparent Infection Mild, Nonspecific Febrile Illness Sepsis-Like Illness Respiratory Illness Gastrointestinal Manifestations Cardiovascular Manifestations Exanthem Neurologic Manifestations Clinical Manifestations: Poliovirus Minor Illness (Abortive Poliomyelitis) Nonparalytic Poliomyelitis (Aseptic Meningitis) Paralytic Poliomyelitis Congenital Infections Abortion Congenital Malformations Prematurity and Stillbirth Neonatal Infections General Infections Infection Acquired in Utero Postnatally Acquired Infection Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Clinical Diagnosis Laboratory Diagnosis Virus Isolation and Detection Techniques Serology Histology Differential Diagnosis Treatment Specific Therapy Nonspecific Therapy Mild, Nonspecific Febrile Illness Myocarditis Meningoencephalitis Poliomyelitis Prognosis Prevention Nonpolio Enteroviral Vaccines and Immune Globulin Polioviral Vaccines Global Eradication of Poliomyelitis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 167 Rhinoviruses Keywords History Organism Structure of the Virion Virus Life Cycle Host Range Animals Cell and Tissue Cultures Antigenic Properties Epidemiology Seasonal Distribution Cycling and Circulation of Individual Rhinovirus Types Predominating Rhinovirus Types Median Human Infectious Dose for Rhinovirus Person-to-Person Transmission Epidemiologic Observations Person-to-Person Transmission to Human Volunteers Early Experiments With Rhinovirus Colds Characteristics of a “Good” Rhinovirus Transmitter Some Early Conclusions Route-of-Transmission Experiments Route-of-Transmission “Blocking” Experiments Pathogenesis and Host Factors General Course of Infection Innate Immune Response Immunity Associated With Serum Antibody Immunity Associated With Antibody in Nasal Secretions Antibody Appearance Over the Course of Infection Cell-Mediated Immunity Interference Among Rhinoviruses Influence of a Cold Environment on the Course of Infection Effect of Age and Sex Effect of Psychosocial Factors Clinical Manifestations Rhinovirus Infections in Hospitalized Children Asthma Otitis Media Sinusitis Immunocompromised Patients Diagnosis of Infection Prevention and Treatment Acknowledgment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 168 Hepatitis A Virus History Properties Classification Genomic Organization and Genetic Variation Virulence Epidemiology Routes of Transmission Patterns of Disease Worldwide Patterns of Disease in the United States Variation by Age and Race or Ethnicity Geographic Variation Potential Sources of Infection Community-Wide Epidemic Epidemiology of Hepatitis A in Specific Settings Childcare Centers Other Groups and Settings Pathology and Pathogenesis Pathology Pathogenesis Host Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses Cellular Immune Response Humoral Immune Response Clinical Manifestations Incubation Period Spectrum of Illness Clinical Signs and Symptoms Laboratory Abnormalities Diagnostic Tests Atypical Clinical Manifestations and Complications of Hepatitis A Relapsing Hepatitis A Fulminant Hepatitis A Extrahepatic Manifestations Cholestatic Hepatitis A Hepatitis A Triggering Autoimmune Hepatitis Treatment Prevention Immunoglobulin Hepatitis A Vaccine Vaccine Preparation and Performance Vaccine Recommendations and Use New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection II RNA—Caliciviridae 169 Calicivirus (Norovirus, Sapovirus, Vesivirus, Lagovirus, Nebovirus) Virologic Features Epidemiology Pathogenesis Immunology Clinical Manifestations Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Nonspecific Measures Specific Measures Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 170 Hepatitis E Virus Keywords History and Discovery of Virus Microbiology and Genome Organization Viral Structure and Stability Viral Life Cycle Viral Genetics Taxonomy and Classification Epidemiology Endemic Hepatitis E Virus Epidemic Hepatitis E Virus Zoonotic Hepatitis E Virus Vertical and Breast Milk Transmission Other Modes of Transmission Pathogenesis and Immunity Pathogenesis Immunity Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Testing Serology Polymerase Chain Reaction Electron Microscopy Disease Prevention and Vaccine Candidates Disease Avoidance Antibody Preparations Therapies Vaccine Candidates and Future Therapies Summary New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection III RNA—Reoviridae 171 Reoviruses Keywords History Properties Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Upper Respiratory Tract Illness Pneumonia Gastrointestinal Manifestations Exanthem Neurologic Disease Other Manifestations Reoviruses as Potential Anti-Cancer Agents Diagnosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 172 Orbiviruses, Coltiviruses, and Seadornaviruses Colorado Tick Fever Virus Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathophysiology Laboratory Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Banna Virus Kemerovo and Related Viruses Orungo Virus Lebombo Virus Changuinola Virus New References Since The Seventh Edition References 173 Rotavirus Rotaviruses Classification and Strain Diversity Rotavirus Infection Reproductive Cycle of Rotavirus Transmission Rotavirus Disease Pathogenesis Diarrhea Vomiting Fever Extraintestinal Spread Epidemiology Seasonality Genotype Distribution Age Laboratory Diagnosis Treatment Rotavirus Immunity Immune Responses in Rotavirus-Infected Individuals Mechanisms of Protection Rotavirus Vaccines WC-3 Bovine Rotavirus Vaccine Rhesus Rotavirus (RRV) Vaccine Rhesus-Human Reassortant Vaccine Bovine-Human Reassortant Vaccine Human Rotavirus Vaccines Rotarix Other Human Rotavirus Vaccine Strains Immune Response and Mechanism of Action Comparative Efficacy Real Life Effectiveness Serotype (Genotype) Specific Effectiveness Impact of Rotavirus Vaccination: Direct and Indirect Introduction of Universal Rotavirus Vaccination Rotavirus Vaccine Recommendations Special Target Groups and Issues Premature Infants HIV-Infected Children Immunodeficiency Short Gut Syndrome and Intestinal Failure Breastfeeding Influence of Oral Polio Vaccine Intestinal Microflora Intussusception Porcine Circovirus Nonlive Rotavirus Vaccines Selected Readings References Subsection IV RNA—Togaviridae 174 Rubella Virus History Properties Classification Physical Properties Antigenic Composition Tissue Culture Growth Animal Susceptibility Epidemiology Incidence and Prevalence Epidemic Behavior Age Groups Effect of Vaccination Congenital Rubella Transmission Seasonal Patterns Geographic Distribution Other Factors Sex Genetics Pathology and Pathogenesis Viral Infection Immunologic Events Antibody Specific Cell-Mediated Responses Nonspecific Responses Fetal Events Viral Infection Immunologic Findings Specific antibody. Specific cell-mediated immunity. Nonspecific responses. Pathology Postnatally Acquired Disease Congenital Infection Clinical Manifestations Postnatal Illness Incubation Period Prodromal Period Exanthem Period Complications Joint involvement. Neurologic manifestations. Thrombocytopenia. Other complications. Congenital Rubella Infant Death and Growth Restriction Eye Effects Auditory Effects Neurologic Effects Cardiovascular Effects Other Manifestations Manifestations related to active, persistent infection. Structural defects. Delayed manifestations. Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Postnatally Acquired Disease Congenital Rubella Specific Diagnosis Postnatally Acquired Disease Congenital Rubella Qualitative Demonstration of Rubella Antibody Treatment Postnatally Acquired Disease Uncomplicated Rubella Complications of Rubella Care of Exposed Pregnant Women Care of Pregnant Women With an Exanthem Thought to Be Rubella Care of Children With Congenital Rubella Isolation Procedures Neonatal Period Long-Term Problems Deafness. Eye problems. Heart problems. Musculoskeletal problems. Central nervous system problems. Immunologic defects. Multiple handicaps. Prevention Active Immunization Using Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccine Recommendations for Use Adverse Reactions Contraindications Inadvertent Rubella Immunization in Pregnancy Passive Immunization Quarantine and Disease Containment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 175 Alphaviruses Keywords Keywords 175A ■ Eastern Equine Encephalitis Etiologic Agent Ecology Epidemiology Pathology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Prognosis and Sequelae Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 175B ■ Western Equine Encephalitis Etiologic Agent Ecology Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathology Pathogenesis Prognosis Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 175C ■ Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Etiologic Agent Epidemiology and Ecology Clinical Manifestations Pathology and Pathogenesis Laboratory Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 175D ■ Chikungunya Etiologic Agent Zoonotic Cycles Epidemiology History Geographic Distribution Clinical Manifestations Pathogenesis and Pathology Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 175E ■ Ross River Virus Arthritis Etiologic Agent Transmission and Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathology Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 175F ■ Other Alphaviral Infections O’Nyong-Nyong Igbo-Ora Fever Barmah Forest Fever Sindbis Fever Mayaro Fever Semliki Forest Virus Fever New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection V Flaviviridae 176 Flaviviruses Keywords 176A ■ St. Louis Encephalitis Etiologic Agent Ecology Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathology Pathogenesis Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 176B ■ West Nile Virus History Virology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Outcome Laboratory Findings Electrodiagnostic Studies Neuroimaging Viral Culture and Nucleic Acid Amplification Detection of West Nile Virus Detection of West Nile Virus–Specific Antibodies Neuropathology Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 176C ■ Yellow Fever History Etiologic Agent Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathology Laboratory Findings Differential Diagnosis Laboratory Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention and Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 176D ■ Dengue, Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever, and Severe Dengue Transmission Epidemiology Host Range Geographic Distribution Clinical Manifestations Dengue Fever Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever, Dengue Shock Syndrome, and Severe Dengue Case Definitions Dengue Fever, Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever, and Dengue Shock Syndrome Dengue Fever Warning Signs and Severe Dengue Pathology and Pathogenesis Diagnosis Dengue Fever Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever, Dengue Shock Syndrome, and Severe Dengue Laboratory Studies Treatment Dengue Fever Outpatients With Mild Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or Warning Signs Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (Compensated Shock) and Dengue Shock Syndrome Inpatients Treatment of patients with Nonshock Dengue hemorrhagic fever (compensated shock). Treatment of patients with shock. General management. Treatment of hemorrhagic complications. Recognizing fluid overload begins with knowing when to decrease or stop intravenous fluids. Action plan for treatment of fluid overload. Regulatory Measures Prognosis Prevention Epidemic Measures Eradication and Control Health Education New References Since the Seventh Edition References 176E ■ Japanese Encephalitis History Etiologic Agent Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathology Pathophysiology Complications Laboratory Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 176F ■ Murray Valley Encephalitis Etiologic Agent Transmission and Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathology Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 176G ■ Tick-Borne Encephalitis History Etiologic Agent Ecology Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathology Pathogenesis Laboratory Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 176H ■ Zika Virus Infections* Epidemiology History of ZIKV as an Emerging Infection From 1947 to the Present Discovery of ZIKV First ZIKV Epidemics: The 2007 Federated States of Micronesia (Yap Island) and the 2013−14 French Polynesia, New Caledonia, and Cook Island ZIKV Epidemics ZIKV’s Rapid Global Expansion: Epidemics in Brazil, Other Latin American Countries, and Beyond Transmission of ZIKV Arbovectors: Aedes Mosquitoes Other Modes of Transmission Virology and Pathogenesis Virology of ZIKV Viral Classification and Structure ZIKV Phylogeny and Genetics Viral Pathogenesis Human in Vitro Cellular Studies and Histopathology From Neonatal Autopsies Recent Insight Into ZIKV’s Pathology, Including Experimental Animal Model Studies (Mice and Nonhuman Primates) Other Studies Providing Insight Into ZIKV’s Pathogenesis (ZIKV and Dengue Antibodies) Clinical Manifestations and Complications Acute ZIKV Infection ZIKV Presentation From the Yap Island Case Series ZIKV Presentation From Several Case Series From Brazil and Other Countries Acute ZIKV Infection in Children Potential Complications Following ZIKV Infection Special Populations With Acute ZIKV Infection (HIV-Infected and Other Immunosuppressed Patients) Neurologic Complications Including Guillain-Barré Syndrome ZIKV and Guillain-Barré Syndrome GBS case series from French Polynesia, Brazil, Colombia, and Puerto Rico. ZIKV in Pregnancy and Congenital ZIKV Syndrome (Microcephaly and Other Congenital Complications) Microcephaly and Other Congenital Cerebral Abnormalities ZIKV Cases in Pregnant Women in Brazil, French Polynesia, Other Latin American Countries, and the United States ZIKV cases in pregnant women in Brazil. ZIKV cases in pregnant women in French Polynesia. ZIKV cases in pregnant women in Colombia and other Latin American countries. ZIKV Cases in Pregnant Women in the United States and US Territories ZIKV Diagnosis, Management, Treatment, and Prevention ZIKV Diagnostics Historical Methods for ZIKV Evaluation Current Methods for ZIKV Evaluation Acute Phase ZIKV Testing Using RT-PCR−Based Methods Beyond the Period of ZIKV Acute-Phase Testing (Serology and PRNT Testing) Other Specimen-Testing Methods New ZIKV diagnostic testing developments. ZIKV Diagnostic Definitions and Testing Guidelines Diagnostic Definitions of ZIKV Cases General Guidelines for ZIKV Testing ZIKV Testing for Infants and Children for Suspected Acute ZIKV Infection Infant ZIKV Testing for Suspected ZIKV Congenital Infection Evaluation and Management of Pediatric Patients With ZIKV Recommendations for Evaluation and Management of Possible Pediatric ZIKV Cases Evaluation of Children for Acute ZIKV Disease Evaluation for Congenital ZIKV Infection Management of Pediatric Patients Infected With Acute ZIKV ZIKV Prevention: Vector Control, Vaccines, and Other Challenges Transmission Prevention Mosquito Vector Control Other ZIKV Transmission Considerations Breast milk transmission: interim guidelines for breast-feeding mothers with ZIKV. Other ZIKV transmission risks: sexual transmission, blood transfusion, and travel. Vaccine Development Future Therapeutics, Vector Control, and Other Interventions to Address ZIKV Therapeutics Vector Control Conclusion Selected References References 176I ■ Other Less Commonly Recognized Flaviviruses Powassan Viral Encephalitis Epidemiology, Ecology, and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Laboratory Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Rocio Viral Encephalitis Louping Ill Virus Kyasanur Forest Disease Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever Other Flaviviral Infections New References Since the Seventh Edition References 177 Hepatitis C Virus Keywords History Virology Pathogenesis Viral Life Cycle Epidemiology Viral Genetics Transmission Clinical Manifestations Immunity Diagnosis Assessment for Severity of Disease Host Genetics Treatment Prevention and Counseling Summary New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection VI Orthomyxoviridae 178 Influenza Viruses History Biology Properties and Life Cycle Classification Ecology Animal Reservoirs Reassortment and Establishment of New Lineages Zoonoses Surveillance Animals Humans Disease Evolution and Adaptation Pandemics Adaptation Rapid Evolution Epidemiology Seasonality and Transmission Global Disease Burden Coinfections Economic Impact High-Risk Pediatric Groups Mortality in Children Avian Influenza Swine Influenza Clinical Manifestations Primary Influenza Complications Pathology Pathogenesis Virulence Factors Hemagglutinin Neuraminidase Polymerase Genes and PB1-F2 Nonstructural Protein 1 Evolution of Virulence Animal Models Research and Modeling Dual Use Research Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Testing Management Antiviral Therapy Adamantanes Neuraminidase Inhibitors Steroids Infection Control Vaccines History Strain Selection Immunogenicity Pediatric Vaccination Efficacy and Effectiveness Pandemic Preparedness New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection VII Paramyxoviridae 179 Parainfluenza Viruses Keywords History Characterization of Parainfluenza Viruses Classification and Structure Isolation and Identification Epidemiology Geographic Distribution Prevalence and Age at Infection Seasonal Occurrence Pathogenesis Transmission Pathology Immune Response: Role in Pathogenesis and Protection Clinical Manifestations Primary Infection Reinfection Infection in Immunocompromised Patients Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Management and Therapy Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 180 Measles Virus History Properties Classification Physical Properties Cellular Receptors Antigenic Composition Tissue Culture Growth Animal Susceptibility Epidemiology Prevalence Age Incidence and Prevalence Geographic Distribution Seasonal Patterns Host and Social Factors Spread of Infection Pathogenesis and Pathology Viral Infection Pathology Measles Exanthem Koplik Spots Respiratory Tract Immunologic Events Antibody Specific Cell-Mediated Responses Other Responses Mechanisms in Recovery From Measles Viral Infection Mechanisms in Prevention of Repeat Illness in Persons Previously Infected With Measles Virus Clinical Manifestations Typical Illness Incubation Period Prodromal Period Exanthem Period Laboratory Findings Modified Illness Atypical Measles Historical Aspects Clinical Characteristics Unusual Manifestations and Complications of Measles Pneumonia Other Respiratory Manifestations Cardiac Manifestations Neurologic Manifestations Other Manifestations Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Laboratory Findings Treatment Measles in Developing Countries Clinical Manifestations Measles in Immunocompromised Hosts Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Uncomplicated Measles Atypical Measles Complications of Measles Otitis Media Laryngotracheitis Pneumonia Encephalitis Appendicitis Prophylactic Antibiotics Prevention Active Immunization: Live, Attenuated Measles Virus Vaccine Recommendations for Use Precautions Contraindications Complications Global Progress Toward Measles Eradication Quarantine and Disease Containment Passive Immunization: Immunoglobulin New References Since the Seventh Edition References 181 Mumps Virus History Classification Properties Physical Properties Antigenic Composition Tissue Culture Growth and Animal Susceptibility Epidemiology Incidence Morbidity and Mortality Spread of Infection Pathogenesis Pathology Immunologic Events Clinical Manifestations Typical Mumps Without Complications Meningitis, Meningoencephalitis, and Encephalitis Gonadal Infection (Epididymo-Orchitis and Oophoritis) Pancreatitis Diabetes Mellitus Nephritis Deafness Mumps and Pregnancy Other Manifestations Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Immunization General Recommendations Dosage Age Persons Exposed to Mumps Use of Vaccine Use of Immunoglobulin Adverse Effects of Vaccine Use Contraindications to Vaccine Use Pregnancy Severe Febrile Illness Allergies Recent Immunoglobulin Injection Altered Immunity Containment of Disease New References Since the Seventh Edition References 182 Respiratory Syncytial Virus History Structural and Antigenic Properties Classification Structural and Antigenic Properties Laboratory Growth Animal Susceptibility Epidemiology Geographic Distribution Seasonal Patterns Strain Variation Acquisition and Ramifications of Infection Risk Factors for Severe Disease Spread of Infection Pathology and Pathogenesis Immune Response: Immunity and Disease Pathogenesis Innate Immunity Passively Acquired Antibody B-Cell Responses T-Cell Responses Clinical Manifestations Primary Infection Radiographic Findings Infection in Neonates Acute Complications Prognosis Prediction at Time of Initial Evaluation Patients at Risk for Complicated RSV Infection Immunocompromised Patients Patients With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Pulmonary Sequelae Repeated Infection Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Breastfeeding Infection Control and Nosocomial Infection Prophylaxis Current Guidelines for Immunoprophylaxis Vaccines New References Since The Seventh Edition References 183 Human Metapneumovirus History Properties Structural and Antigenic Properties Laboratory Growth Animal Susceptibility Epidemiology Geographic Distribution Seasonal Patterns Strain Variation Viral Load Incidence and Prevalence Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Upper Respiratory Tract Manifestations Lower Respiratory Tract Manifestations Asthma Infections in Immunocompromised Persons Encephalitis and Encephalopathy Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection VIII Rhabdoviridae 184 Rabies Virus History Etiology Transmission and Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Animal Rabies Management of Animal Rabies Human Rabies Diagnosis Prophylaxis Local Wound Management Passive Immunity Equine Rabies Immune Globulin Human Rabies Immune Globulin Nerve Tissue Vaccines Cell Culture Vaccines Clinical Considerations Decisions to Immunize Pregnancy Exposures to Bats, Wildlife, and Domestic Animals Circumstances of Bite Failure of Rabies Prophylaxis Preexposure Immunization Intradermal Vaccination Alternative Schedules Booster Doses Adverse Events Future Developments New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection IX Arenaviridae and Filoviridae 185 Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus History Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 186 Arenaviral Hemorrhagic Fevers History Etiologic Agents Person-to-Person Transmission Clinical Manifestations Pathogenesis and Pathology Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Predictive Value Direct Diagnosis Indirect Diagnosis Prognosis and Treatment Prognosis Treatment The Future of Antivirals in the Domain of Arenaviruses Prevention and Control The Future of Vaccine Research New References Since the Seventh Edition References 187 Filoviral Hemorrhagic Fever Etiologic Agents History and Epidemiology Marburg Virus Ebola Virus 1976 to 1979: First Recorded Ebola Outbreaks Reston Ebolavirus 1994 to 1997: Ebola Resurgence 2000 to 2004: Geographic Pattern of Zaire Ebolavirus and Sudan Ebolavirus Resurgence Zaire ebolavirus outbreaks. Sudan ebolavirus outbreaks. 2007 to 2012: Ebola Outbreaks Largest Ebola Outbreak in History (2014–15) Guinea. Liberia. Sierra Leone. Ebola outside West Africa. Latest Outbreak, 2017: Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola and Marburg Virus Transmission Animal to Human Human to Human Cultural practices. Health care–Associated. Clinical Manifestations Pediatric Patients and 2014 Outbreak Post Ebola Sequelae Pathology Differential Diagnosis Diagnosis Infection Control and Prevention Management of Filoviruses Ebola Treatment Unit in Resource-Limited Settings Biocontainment Units in Developed Countries Supportive Care Treatment of Ebola in Children and Pregnant Women Experimental Therapies Phosphorodiamidate Morpholino Oligomers Nucleoside/Nucleotide Viral Polymerase Inhibitors Immunotherapeutics Vaccine Therapies for Ebola Virus Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection X Coronaviridae and Toroviridae 188 Human Coronaviruses, Including Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Background Virology Epidemiology of Community-Acquired Respiratory Coronaviruses Geographic Prevalence Seasonal Incidence and Annual Recycling Pattern Ratio of Clinical to Subclinical Illness Age Specificity of Infection Transmission Infection and Immunity Pathogenesis, Incubation Period, and Serologic Response Reinfection Clinical Manifestations of Respiratory Tract Infections Common Cold and Other Upper Respiratory Tract Illnesses Lower Respiratory Tract Disease Pneumonia and Other Severe Lower Respiratory Tract Infections Infections in Children With Underlying Respiratory Disease or Immunodeficiency Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Etiology Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Specific Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Etiology Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Enteric Human Coronavirus Neurologic Diseases Laboratory Diagnosis Virus Isolation Community-Acquired Respiratory Coronaviruses Virus Detection Techniques Community-Acquired Respiratory Coronaviruses Serodiagnosis Prevention and Treatment New References Since The Seventh Edition References Subsection XI Bunyaviridae 189 Hantaviruses Historical Perspective Organism Classification and Antigenic Composition Physical Properties Susceptibility Laboratory Propagation and Tissue Culture Growth Transmission Epidemiology Geographic Distribution Seasonal Patterns Prevalence and Incidence Demographic and Geographic Features Clinical Manifestations Hemorrhagic Fever With Renal Syndrome Nephropathia Epidemica Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome Complications Pathogenesis and Pathology Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Laboratory Studies Treatment Prevention Primary Prevention Vaccine Prospects Hospital Infection Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 190 La Crosse Encephalitis and Other California Serogroup Viruses Etiologic Agent Ecology La Crosse Virus Other California Serogroup Viruses Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Laboratory and Radiologic Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Outcome Pathology Prevention Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 191 Other Bunyaviridae 191A ■ Rift Valley Fever History Etiologic Agent Vectors and Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Laboratory Findings Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 191B ■ Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Etiologic Agent Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Acknowledgment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 191C ■ Phlebotomus Fever (Sandfly Fever) Etiologic Agent Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Pathology Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Acknowledgment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 191D ■ Oropouche Fever Etiologic Agent Epidemiology Geographic Distribution Incidence Diffusion of Epidemics Seasonal Fluctuation Endemic Transmission Transmission Mechanism Transmission Cycles Incubation Period Transmissibility Period Ratio of Symptomatic Cases Clinical Manifestations Classic Febrile Form Aseptic Meningitis Pathogenesis Laboratory Findings Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention and Control New References Since the Seventh Edition References 191E ■ Toscana Virus History Etiologic Agent Epidemiology Italy Spain France Cyprus Greece Portugal North Africa (Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) Turkey Other Countries Cycle in Nature Vectors of Toscana Virus Reservoir of Toscana Virus Clinical Manifestations Asymptomatic or Minimally Symptomatic Infection Febrile Illness Meningitis Other Central Nervous System Manifestations Other Disease Manifestations Not Involving the Central Nervous System Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Serology Immunofluorescence Assay Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Rapid Immunochromatographic Test Neutralization Test Viral Isolation Genome Amplification by Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction Assays Genetic Diversity of Toscana Virus New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection XII Retroviridae 192 Human Retroviruses 192A ■ Oncoviruses (Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Viruses) and Lentiviruses (Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2) Classification Morphology and Genomic Structure Oncoviral Regulatory and Accessory Genes Lentiviral Regulatory and Accessory Genes Viral Replication Retroviral Life Cycle Infection phase of retroviral replication. Expression phase of retroviral replication. Diagnosis Oncoviruses: Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Types Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type I Epidemiology Modes of Transmission Mother-to-child transmission. Parenteral transmission. Sexual transmission. Disease Associations Adult T-Cell Leukemia and Other Malignancies Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1–Associated Myelopathy Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1–Associated Uveitis Pediatric Manifestations Infective dermatitis. Other Disorders in Adults and Children Dual Infection With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 2 Viral Pathogenesis and Molecular Biology Epidemiology Modes of Transmission Clinical Disease Other Forms of Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Future Directions Lentiviruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 Viral Genome and Pathogenesis Epidemiology Dual Infections With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Types 1 and 2 Mode of Transmission Sexual Transmission Perinatal Transmission Diagnosis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 Natural History Treatment Disease Monitoring New References Since the Seventh Edition References 192B ■ Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Definition and Staging of Pediatric HIV Infection Epidemiology and Transmission and Prevention Transmission by Blood Products Perinatal Transmission Sexual Transmission: Second Wave of Pediatric AIDS Other Modes of Transmission Etiology Pathogenesis The Developing Immune System Immune Dysfunction T-Cell Depletion Clinical Manifestations Opportunistic Infections Pneumocystis Pneumonia Infection with Mycobacterium avium Complex Tuberculosis Cytomegalovirus Other Herpesvirus Infections Fungal Diseases Bacterial Diseases Complications Pulmonary Complications Central Nervous System, Neurobehavioral, and Neurocognitive Complications of Pediatric HIV/AIDS Gastrointestinal Complications Malignancy Other Complications Cardiac Abnormalities Renal Dysfunction Bone Marrow Suppression Diagnosis of HIV Infection in Infants and Children Early Transmission to Fetuses Methods for Diagnosing Infection in Children Older Than 18 Months Methods for Diagnosing Infection in Children Younger Than 18 Months Immunologic and Clinical Monitoring of HIV-Infected Children Treatment Primary Anti-HIV Infection Treatment Inhibitors of HIV Cell Entry Blockade of HIV by CD4-Receptor Inhibitors Blockade of HIV by Chemokine Inhibitors Blockade of HIV by Interference With gp120-CD4 Interactions Blockade of HIV by Fusion Inhibitors Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors Nonnucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors Protease Inhibitors Integrase Inhibitors Change in Therapy Toxicities and Adverse Effects Benefits of Therapy Immune-Based Therapies Vaccines New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection XIII Prion-Related Diseases 193 Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker Disease, Kuru, Fatal Familial Insomnia, New Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, Sporadic Fatal Insomnia) History Epidemiology and Natural History Kuru Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker Disease Fatal Familial Insomnia Sporadic Fatal Insomnia Etiologic Agent and Pathogenesis Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Laboratory Diagnosis Neuroimaging Electroencephalography Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 18 Chlamydia 194 Chlamydia Infections Keywords Infections Caused by Chlamydia trachomatis Epidemiology Chlamydia trachomatis Infections in the Neonate History Epidemiology Conjunctivitis. Pneumonia. Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis Infection in Infants Treatment of Chlamydial Conjunctivitis and Pneumonia in Infants Prevention and Control Strategies Infections in Older Children Genital Chlamydia trachomatis Infections in Adolescents Lymphogranuloma Venereum Trachoma Diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis Infections Treatment Infection Caused by Chlamydia psittaci Organism Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Laboratory Findings Diagnosis Treatment Infection Caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae Organism Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 19 ■ Rickettsial Diseases 195 Rickettsial and Ehrlichial Diseases Spotted Fevers Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Historical aspects. Etiology, morphology, growth, and metabolism. Epidemiology and transmission. Pathogenesis. Clinical manifestations. Diagnosis. Differential diagnosis. Treatment. Prognosis. Prevention. Mediterranean Spotted Fever Overview. Epidemiology. Clinical manifestations. Diagnosis. Differential diagnosis. Treatment and prevention. Rickettsialpox Historical aspects. Organism. Epidemiology and transmission. Pathology. Clinical manifestations. Diagnosis. Differential diagnosis. Treatment. Other Spotted Fever Group Rickettsioses Typhus Rickettsia prowazekii Infection (Epidemic Typhus) Overview. Epidemiology and transmission. Pathogenesis. Clinical manifestations. Diagnosis. Differential diagnosis. Treatment. Prevention. Rickettsia typhi Infection (Murine Typhus) Overview. Epidemiology and transmission. Clinical manifestations. Diagnosis. Differential diagnosis. Treatment. Prevention. Scrub Typhus Overview. Organism. Epidemiology and transmission. Pathogenesis. Clinical manifestations. Diagnosis. Differential diagnosis. Treatment. Prognosis. Prevention. Ehrlichiosis and Anaplasmosis Overview. Organisms. Epidemiology and transmission. Pathogenesis and pathology. Clinical manifestations. Diagnosis. Differential diagnosis. Treatment. Coinfection. Q Fever Historical aspects. Organism. Epidemiology and transmission. Pathology. Clinical manifestations. Diagnosis. Differential diagnosis. Treatment. Prevention. New References Since the Seventh Edition References 20 ■ Mycoplasma 196 Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma Infections Keywords History Classification Mycoplasma Pneumoniae Properties Morphology Motility and Multiplication Composition Growth Characteristics and Physical Properties Antigenic Composition Animal Susceptibility Epidemiology Epidemic Pattern Incidence of Infection and Disease Incubation Period Geography Gender Difference Pathogenesis and Pathology Sequence of Events in Infection Pathology Immunologic Events Specific antibody. Specific cell-mediated immunity. Nonspecific responses. Possible Mechanisms of Disease Production Clinical Manifestations Pneumonia Symptoms and signs. Radiography. Nonspecific laboratory data. Respiratory Disease Other Than Pneumonia Common cold and unspecified upper respiratory illness. Pharyngitis and nasopharyngitis. Otitis media and bullous hemorrhagic myringitis. Sinusitis. Acute bronchitis. Croup. Bronchiolitis and infectious asthma. Other. Exanthem and Enanthem Cardiac Manifestations Hematologic Manifestations Abdominal Manifestations Nonspecific gastrointestinal findings. Liver involvement. Splenic infarct. Pancreatitis. Renal disease. Arthritis Muscular Disease Ocular and Neurologic Disease Mixed Infections Other Disease Associations Recurrent Disease Disease in the Neonate Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Specific Diagnosis Serum cold agglutinins. Specific antibody determinations. Culture. Detection by nucleic acid amplification and mass spectrometry Tests. Treatment Antimicrobial Therapy Corticosteroid Therapy Intravenous Immunoglobulin Plasmapheresis General Management Prevention Ureaplasma Properties Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes and Infertility Nongonococcal Urethritis Other Infections Disease in the Neonate Transmission. Clinical Manifestations Chorioamnionitis Pneumonia Chronic Lung Disease Central Nervous System Infections Other Infections Differential Diagnosis Mycoplasma hominis Properties Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Disease in the Neonate Differential Diagnosis Mycoplasma genitalium Properties Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Differential Diagnosis Mycoplasma fermentans Mycoplasma penetrans Diagnosis of Genital Mycoplasmas Other Mycoplasma Species and Mycoplasma Relationships Mycoplasma salivarium Mycoplasma pirum Zoonotic Mycoplasma Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome–Associated Mycoplasmal Infections Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma Infections in Immunocompromised Patients Mycoplasma and Cancer Mycoplasma as a Cell Culture Contaminant Treatment of Genital Mycoplasmas Prevention of Genital Mycoplasmas New References Since the Seventh Edition References 21 ■ Fungal Diseases 197 Classification of Fungi New References Since the Seventh Edition 198 Aspergillosis Organism Clinical Presentations Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis Invasive Aspergillus Sinusitis Cerebral Aspergillosis Cutaneous Aspergillosis Chronic Aspergillosis Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis Epidemiology Diagnosis Cultures Radiology Serology Galactomannan Antigen Bronchoalveolar Lavage (1→3)-β-d-Glucan Polymerase Chain Reaction Treatment Treatment for Invasive Aspergillosis Primary Antifungal Therapy Alternative Antifungal Therapy Salvage Antifungal Therapy Combination Antifungal Therapy Adjunctive Therapies Treatment for Chronic or Allergic Aspergillosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 199 Blastomycosis Historical Perspective Mycology Ecology and Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Pulmonary Disease Disseminated Disease Disease in Immunocompromised Patients Blastomycosis During Pregnancy and in Neonates Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 200 Candidiasis Organism Epidemiology Pathogenesis Pathogen Factors Host Factors Clinical Manifestations Superficial Candidiasis Oropharyngeal Candidiasis Esophageal Candidiasis Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Cutaneous Candidiasis Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis Invasive Candidiasis Candidemia Acute Disseminated Candidiasis Endovascular candidiasis. Cardiac candidiasis. Pulmonary candidiasis. Candidiasis of the peritoneum, gastrointestinal tract, and gallbladder. Candidiasis of the urinary tract. Osteoarticular candidiasis. Central nervous system candidiasis. Ocular candidiasis. Chronic Disseminated Candidiasis Diagnosis Culture Histology Antigen Molecular-Based Testing Other Novel Diagnostic Approaches Antifungal Prophylaxis and Treatment Prophylaxis Treatment Superficial Candidiasis Oropharyngeal candidiasis. Esophageal candidiasis. Vulvovaginal candidiasis. Cutaneous candidiasis. Invasive Candidiasis Candidemia. Endovascular candidiasis. Cardiac candidiasis. Peritoneal candidiasis. Candidiasis of the urinary tract. Osteoarticular candidiasis. Central nervous system candidiasis. Ocular candidiasis. Chronic disseminated candidiasis. Neonatal Candidiasis Epidemiology Risk Factors Clinical Manifestations Congenital Cutaneous Candidiasis Neonatal Candidemia Neonatal Urinary Tract Infection Neonatal Meningoencephalitis Neonatal Endocarditis and Infected Vascular Thrombi Neonatal Endophthalmitis and Retinopathy of Prematurity Neonatal Candida End-Organ Dissemination Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Amphotericin B Preparations Azoles Echinocandins Central Venous Catheter Removal With Bloodstream Infections Empiric Antifungal Therapy Prevention Fluconazole prophylaxis. Safety of fluconazole prophylaxis. Nystatin prophylaxis. Infection control measures to prevent neonatal invasive candidiasis Prenatal detection and eradication of maternal vaginal candidiasis. Medication and feeding stewardship. Central line–associated bloodstream infection bundles. Lactoferrin. Outcomes Neurodevelopmental Impairment Survival Candida-Related Mortality New References Since the Seventh Edition References 201 Coccidioidomycosis Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Primary Pulmonary Infection Primary Inoculation-Related Infection Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis Skin Disease Bone and Joint Disease Meningitis Coccidioidomycosis in Pregnancy Coccidioidomycosis in the Immunocompromised Host Diagnosis Culture and Identification of the Fungus Skin Test Serologic Studies Antigen Detection Treatment Primary Infection Disseminated Disease Nonmeningeal Dissemination Meningeal Disease Surgical Management Refractory or Progressive Disease Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 202 Paracoccidioidomycosis Organism Transmission Epidemiology Incidence Age Gender Occupation and Race Geographic Distribution Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 203 Cryptococcosis Organism Virulence Capsule Melanin Extracellular Enzymes Phenotypic Variation Ecology and Epidemiology Cryptococcus neoformans Cryptococcus gattii Pathogenesis Pulmonary Cryptococcosis Pulmonary Cryptococcosis in Children Clinical Manifestations Radiology Diagnosis Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis Clinical Manifestations Pediatric Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis Diagnosis Cerebrospinal Fluid Profile Imaging India Ink Staining Culture and Histopathology Antigen Detection Complications Mortality Increased Intracranial Pressure Cryptococcoma Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome Other Forms of Cryptococcosis Congenital Cryptococcosis Treatment Pulmonary Disease Central Nervous System Disease Secondary Prophylaxis Adjuvant Interferon-γ Primary Prophylaxis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 204 Histoplasmosis Organism Epidemiology Pathophysiology Pathology Clinical Manifestations Pulmonary Histoplasmosis Primary Cutaneous Histoplasmosis Progressive Disseminated Histoplasmosis Progressive Disseminated Histoplasmosis of Infancy Progressive Disseminated Histoplasmosis in Immunocompromised Hosts Progressive Disseminated Histoplasmosis in Human Immunodeficiency Virus–Infected Patients Central Nervous System Infection Presumed Ocular Histoplasmosis Syndrome Illness Caused by Infection with Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii Radiographic Findings Diagnosis Organisms Shown on Histology Culture Antibody and Antigen Detection Complement Fixation Immunodiffusion Antigen Detection Skin Testing Molecular Methods Treatment Medical Management for Manifestations Requiring Antifungal Therapy Primary Pulmonary Infection Mediastinal Adenitis Disseminated Infection Immunocompetent Patients and Immunosuppressed Patients Without Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Disseminated Infection in Patients With Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Prophylaxis of Immunosuppressed Patients Central Nervous System Infection Medical Management of Manifestations That Do Not Require Antifungal Therapy Surgical Treatment Prognosis Prevention New References Since The Seventh Edition References 205 Sporotrichosis Organism Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Cutaneous Sporotrichosis Extracutaneous Sporotrichosis Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 206 Mucormycosis and Entomophthoramycosis Mucormycosis Organisms Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Rhinocerebral Mucormycosis Pulmonary Mucormycosis Skin and Soft Tissue (Cutaneous) Mucormycosis Gastrointestinal Mucormycosis Disseminated Mucormycosis Miscellaneous Forms of Mucormycosis Diagnosis Treatment General Principles Amphotericin B Formulations Triazoles Combination Therapy Adjunctive Therapies Prognosis and Prevention Entomophthoramycosis Organisms Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Chronic Rhinofacial Entomophthoramycosis Chronic Subcutaneous Entomophthoramycosis Gastrointestinal Basidiobolomycosis Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis and Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 207 Fusariosis and Scedosporiosis Infections Caused by Fusarium Species Microbiology and Pathogenesis of Infection Risk Factors and Clinical Syndromes Diagnosis and Therapy Infections Caused by Scedosporium Species Microbiology and Pathogenesis Risk Factors and Clinical Syndromes Diagnosis and Therapy New References in the Seventh Edition References 208 Miscellaneous Mycoses Yeasts Malassezia Species Trichosporon Species Rhodotorula mucilaginosa Talaromyces (Penicillium) marneffei Molds Phaeohyphomycosis: Cladophialophora bantiana and Bipolaris Species and Others Hyalohyphomycosis Paecilomyces Species Trichoderma longibrachiatum Acremonium Species New References Since the Seventh Edition References 22 ■ Parasitic Diseases 209 Classification and Nomenclature of Human Parasites Keywords New References Since The Seventh Edition References Subsection I 210 Amebiasis Etiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Immunity Clinical Manifestations Intestinal Amebiasis Asymptomatic Intraluminal Amebiasis Entamoeba histolytica–Associated Diarrhea Acute Amebic Colitis Ameboma Extraintestinal Amebiasis Amebic Liver Abscess Metastatic Amebiasis Diagnosis Microscopic Examination of Stool Polymerase Chain Reaction, Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction, and Antigen Detection Tests Serologic Tests Noninvasive Diagnosis of Extraintestinal Amebiasis Biopsy Studies Differential Diagnosis Complications Treatment Intestinal Amebiasis Asymptomatic Intraluminal Amebiasis Acute Amebic Colitis Extraintestinal Amebiasis Amebic Liver Abscess and Metastatic Amebiasis Prognosis Future Considerations New References Since the Seventh Edition References 211 Blastocystis hominis and Blastocystis spp. Infection Etiology and Pathogenesis Epidemiology and Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Sixth Edition References 212 Entamoeba coli Infection Etiology and Pathogenesis Epidemiology and Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 213 Giardiasis Organism and Etiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 214 Dientamoeba fragilis Infections Organism Epidemiology and Transmission Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 215 Trichomonas Infections Microbiology Epidemiology Prevalence Risk Factors Transmission Pathology and Pathogenesis Immunology Clinical Manifestations Clinical Diagnosis Screening and Diagnosis Laboratory Tests Point-of-Care Tests Culture Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests Papanicolaou Smear Other Diagnostic Tests Treatment Prognosis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 216 Balantidium coli Infection Etiology and Pathogenesis Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Asymptomatic Infection Diarrhea Invasive Colonic Balantidiasis Metastatic and Extraintestinal Balantidiasis Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 217 Cryptosporidiosis Keywords Microbiology Life Cycle Epidemiology Transmission Pathology and Pathogenesis Immunology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Management Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 218 Cyclosporiasis, Cystoisosporiasis, and Microsporidiosis Cyclospora Cayetanensis Microbiology and Life Cycle Epidemiology and Transmission Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Cystoisosporiasis Microbiology and Life Cycle Epidemiology and Transmission Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Microsporidiosis Microbiology and Life Cycle Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Intestinal and Biliary Tract Microsporidiosis Ocular Infection Other Clinical Presentations Diagnosis Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 219 Babesiosis Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Prevention and Treatment New References Since the Seventh Edition References 220 Malaria History Organism Epidemiology Transmission Epidemiologic Terminology Mosquito-borne Transmission Bloodborne Transmission Congenital Malaria Cryptic Malaria Host-Parasite Interaction Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations and Laboratory Findings Severe and Complicated Malaria Severe Anemia Hypoglycemia Acid-Base Changes Renal Complications Respiratory Complications Cerebral Malaria Hyperreactive Malarial Syndrome (Tropical Splenomegaly Syndrome, Hyperreactive Malarial Splenomegaly) Malaria in Special Populations Malaria in Children Congenital Malaria Malaria in Pregnancy Diagnosis Microscopy Fluorescent Microscopy Detection of Parasite Antigen DNA Probe Polymerase Chain Reaction Flow Cytometry Antibody Detection Treatment Antimalarial Agents Available for Use in the United States Chloroquine Artemether-Lumefantrine Atovaquone-Proguanil Mefloquine Quinine and Quinidine Primaquine Tetracycline and Doxycycline Antimalarial Agents Not Currently Available or Recommended for Treatment of Malaria in the United States Other Artemisinin Derivatives Pyrimethamine-Sulfadoxine Amodiaquine Halofantrine Supportive Therapy Investigational Drugs and Adjunctive Therapy Prevention Personal Protective Measures Chemoprophylaxis Antimalarial Agents Available in the United States for Prevention of Malaria Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine Atovaquone-Proguanil Mefloquine Doxycycline Primaquine Antimalarial Agents Not Available or Recommended in the United States for Prevention of Malaria Tafenoquine Proguanil Pyrimethamine-Sulfadoxine Standby Emergency Self-Treatment Intermittent Preventive Treatment Vaccine New References Since the Seventh Edition References 221 Leishmaniasis Keywords: Organism Epidemiology Old World Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Definition and Epidemiology Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prevention American Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Leishmania Mexicana Complex Leishmania Braziliensis Complex (Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis) Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Visceral Leishmaniasis Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Prognosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 222 Trypanosomiasis American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease) Biology, Life Cycle, and Mechanisms of Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi Epidemiology Pathology and Clinical Manifestations Acute and Indeterminate Phases of Chagas Disease Chronic Chagas Heart Disease Chronic Gastrointestinal Chagas Disease (Megadisease) Trypanosoma cruzi Infection, Immunosuppression, and Transplantation Diagnosis Treatment Chronic Symptomatic Chagas Disease Prevention and Control African Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness) Biology, Life Cycle, and Mechanisms of Transmission of African Trypanosomes Epidemiology Pathology and Clinical Manifestations Infants and Children Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Selected References References 223 Naegleria, Acanthamoeba, and Balamuthia Infections Epidemiology Organisms Clinical Manifestations Naegleria Fowleri Acanthamoeba Species Acanthamoeba Keratitis Balamuthia Mandrillaris Neuroimaging Pathogenesis Pathology Diagnosis Direct Microscopic Identification Culture Serology Molecular Diagnostics Treatment Amebic Meningoencephalitis Amebic Keratitis Role of Acanthamoeba Species as Reservoirs of Intracellular Pathogens Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 224 Toxoplasmosis Organism and Transmission Epidemiology Acquired Infection Congenital Infection Pathology Immunology Clinical Syndromes Acute Acquired Toxoplasmosis Congenital Toxoplasmosis Ocular Toxoplasmosis Laboratory Diagnosis Serologic Methods Measurements of IgG Antibody Measurements of IgM Antibody Measurements of IgA and IgE Antibodies Differential Agglutination Multiplexed Serologic Assays Point of Care Testing Nonserologic Methods Isolation of the Organism Histology Antigen-Specific Lymphocyte Transformation Polymerase Chain Reaction Interferon-γ Release Assay Diagnosis in Specific Clinical Situations Acute Acquired Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma Infection in Immunodeficient Children Toxoplasma Infection in Pregnant Women Fetal Diagnosis Diagnosis of Congenital Toxoplasmosis After Birth Ocular Toxoplasmosis Treatment Therapeutic Agents Spiramycin Pyrimethamine Leucovorin Sulfadiazine Clindamycin Other Antimicrobial Agents Therapy in Specific Clinical Settings Acquired Toxoplasmosis Treatment of Pregnant Women Postnatal treatment of congenital infection. Sequential fetal and postnatal treatment. Coexistent HIV Infection Recurrent Ocular Toxoplasmosis Prevention Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 225 Pneumocystis Pneumonia Organism Transmission and Epidemiology Transmission Pneumocystis Pneumonia and AIDS Pneumocystis Pneumonia Not Associated With AIDS Immunopathogenesis Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Prognosis Treatment Prevention References Subsection II Nematodes 226 Parasitic Nematode Infections Intestinal Nematodes Ascaris lumbricoides Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Trichuris trichiura Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Hookworms Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Enterobius vermicularis Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Strongyloides stercoralis and Strongyloides fuelleborni kellyi Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Aberrant Infections With Intestinal Nematodes Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Other Aberrant Infections With Intestinal Nematodes Filarial Parasites Lymphatic Filariasis: Wuchereria Bancrofti and Brugia Species Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Loa Loa Onchocerca volvulus (and “Nodding Syndrome”) Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Mansonella Perstans and Mansonella Ozzardi Dirofilaria immitis Dracunculus medinensis New References Since the Seventh Edition Intestinal Nematodes Ascaris lumbricoides Trichuris trichiura Hookworms Enterobius vermicularis Strongyloides stercoralis and Strongyloides fuelleborni Aberrant Infections With Intestinal Nematodes Filarial Parasites Onchocerca volvulus References Intestinal Nematodes Ascaris lumbricoides Trichuris trichiura Hookworms Enterobius vermicularis Strongyloides stercoralis and Strongyloides fuelleborni Aberrant Infections With Intestinal Nematodes Other Aberrant Infections With Intestinal Nematodes Filarial Parasites Lymphatic Filariasis: Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia Species Loa loa Onchocerca volvulus Mansonella perstans and Mansonella ozzardi Dirofilaria immitis Dracunculus medinensis Subsection III Cestodes 227 Cestodes Overview of Cestodes and Their Importance for Children Taenia saginata (Beef Tapeworm) Infection Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis Prevention Taenia asiatica (Asian Pork Tapeworm) Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis Prevention Taenia Solium Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Taeniasis Cysticercosis Single enhancing lesions. Multiple cystic (viable) lesions. Cysticercal encephalitis. Parenchymal calcifications. Ventricular neurocysticercosis. Subarachnoid cysticercosis. Giant cysticerci. Other forms of cysticercosis. Diagnosis Taeniasis Neurocysticercosis Treatment Single Enhancing Lesions Multiple Parenchymal Lesions Cysticercal Encephalitis (Numerous Cysticerci With Cerebral Edema) Calcified Parenchymal Cysticerci Ventricular Neurocysticercosis Subarachnoid Neurocysticercosis Giant Subarachnoid Neurocysticercosis Other Forms of Neurocysticercosis Prognosis Prevention Coenurosis (Taenia multiceps, Others) and Cysticercosis Caused by Taenia crassiceps Diphyllobothrium Species (Fish Tapeworm) Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Dipylidium Caninum (Dog Tapeworm) Organism Transmission and Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations, Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Treatment Hymenolepis nana (Dwarf Tapeworm) Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention Hymenolepis diminuta (Rat Tapeworm) Sparganosis (Intermediate-Stage Spirometra Species Infection) Organism Transmission Epidemiology Pathology, Pathogenesis, and Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention Echinococcus Granulosus and Related Species (Cystic Hydatid Disease) Organisms Transmission Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention Other Echinococcus Species New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection IV Trematodes 228 Foodborne Trematodes Liver Flukes Clonorchiasis and Opisthorchiasis Organisms Transmission and Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention Fascioliasis Organisms Transmission and Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention Lung Fluke Paragonimiasis Organisms Transmission and Epidemiology Pathology and Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Classical (pleuropulmonary) paragonimiasis. Nonclassical presentations. Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention Intestinal Flukes Fasciolopsiasis Life Cycle Epidemiology Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Prevention Heterophyiasis Organism Transmission and Epidemiology Pathology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Metorchiasis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 229 Schistosomiasis Epidemiology Pathogenesis and Immunity Chronic Schistosomiasis Urinary Schistosomiasis Clinical Manifestations Cercarial Penetration Acute Schistosomiasis (Katayama Fever) Urinary Schistosomiasis Genital Schistosomiasis Intestinal Disease Hepatosplenic Disease (Hepatomegaly, Splenomegaly, and Portal Hypertension) Pneumonitis and Cor Pulmonale Central Nervous System Involvement Chronic or Recurrent Salmonellosis Diagnosis Treatment Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References Subsection V Arthropods 230 Arthropods Ticks Tick Paralysis Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Myiasis Etiology Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Mites Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Lice Pediculosis Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Head lice. Body lice. Pubic lice. Bed Bugs Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Eradication Spiders Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Treatment Scorpions Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations Treatment Fleas Murine Typhus Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Tungiasis New References Since the Seventh Edition References 23 ■ Global Health 231 Global Health Definition of Global Health History and Evolution of Global Health Social Determinants of Health Millennium Development Goals for Global Health and the New Sustainable Development Goals Future Direction of Global Health New References Since the Seventh Edition References 232 International Travel Issues for Children Travelers Visiting Relatives and Family Pediatric Travelers and Health Risks Abroad General Approach to Pretravel Assessment for Children Vaccination for International Travel Routine Childhood Vaccinations for Pediatric Travelers Measles Hepatitis A Polio Influenza Neisseria meningitis Others Vaccine-Preventable Diseases Common Travel-Related Vaccines for Children Yellow Fever Japanese Encephalitis Virus Rabies Typhoid Cholera Prevention of Mosquito-Borne Illness Malaria Dengue Chikungunya Zika Virus Personal Protection Methods Antimalarial Medication Prevention of Traveler’s Diarrhea in Children Epidemiology of Traveler’s Diarrhea Preventive Counseling for Traveler’s Diarrhea Food and Beverage Precautions Managing Traveler’s Diarrhea in Children Antibiotics Prevention of Other Infectious Diseases in Pediatric Travelers General Travel Health Counseling for Children Pediatric Traveler’s Health Kit International Travel Information Resources New References Since the Seventh Edition References 233 Infectious Disease Considerations in International Adoptees and Refugees Overall Evaluation Infectious Disease Screening Viral Hepatitis Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 and 2 Infections Bacterial Infections Syphilis Tuberculosis Enteric Bacterial Infections Intestinal Parasites Eosinophilia and Tissue Parasites Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis) Malaria Multidrug-Resistant Organisms Other Testing Other Vaccine-Preventable Diseases Dermatologic Infections and Infestations Immunization Guidelines Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Edition References 234 Antibiotic Resistance Resistance Genetics Plasmids Transposons and Integrative and Conjugative Elements Integrons Insertion Sequences Summary Resistance to Specific Antibiotics β-Lactam Antibiotics β-Lactamase Production Clinical relevance. Mechanisms of resistance. Bush-Jacoby group 1 (Ambler class C) AmpC β-lactamases. Bush-Jacoby group 2 (Ambler class A and D) β-lactamases. Early group 2 β-lactamases. Extended-spectrum β-lactamases. Group 2 carbapenemases. Bush-Jacoby group 3 (Ambler class B) metallo-β-lactamases. Alteration of Penicillin-Binding Proteins Clinical relevance. Mechanism of resistance. Macrolides, Lincosamides, and Streptogramins Clinical Relevance Mechanism of Resistance Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole Clinical Relevance Respiratory tract infections: otitis media and pneumonia. Shigellosis. Urinary tract infections. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Mechanisms of Resistance Aminoglycosides Clinical Relevance Mechanism of Resistance Glycopeptides Clinical Relevance Mechanisms of Resistance Resistance to oxazolidinone daptomycin, and ceftaroline. Oxazolidinones. Daptomycin. Ceftaroline. Quinolones Clinical Relevance Bacterial enteritis. Urinary tract infections. Community-acquired respiratory tract infections. Nosocomial infections. Mechanisms of Resistance Mutations of topoisomerase. Altered outer-membrane porin. Efflux. Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. Qnr proteins. AAC(6′)-Ib-cr gene. OqxAB and QepA efflux pumps. Polymyxins Clinical Significance Mechanisms of Resistance Chloramphenicol Clinical Relevance Mechanisms of Resistance New References Since the Seventh Edition References 235 The Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Interface Pharmacokinetic Determinants of Exposure Basic Terms Impact of Ontogeny on Pharmacokinetics Drug Absorption Distribution Renal Excretion Metabolism Phase I Pathways Phase II Pathways Pharmacokinetic Determinants of Effect Pharmacodynamic Determinants of Effect Effects Described by Pharmacokinetic Parameters and Conventional Susceptibility End Points Time Above the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Concentration Above the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Total Body Exposure Above the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Optimal Surrogates for Drugs in Combination Effect of Suprainhibitory Antimicrobial Concentrations (Eagle Effect, Paradoxical Zone Phenomenon, Concentration Quenching) Effects of Subinhibitory Antimicrobial Concentration Effects That Persist After Antimicrobial Exposure (Postantibiotic Effect, Postantibiotic Leukocyte Enhancement, and Post–β-Lactamase Inhibitor Effect) Impact of Inoculum Size on the Concentration-Effect Relationship Concentration-Dependent Combination Effects (Synergy and Antagonism) Pharmacogenetic-Pharmacogenomic Determinants of Effect Conclusion Practicing Precision Medicine in Infectious Disease New References Since the Seventh Edition References 236 Antibacterial Therapeutic Agents Clinical Pharmacology Agents That Target the Cell Wall β-Lactams Biochemical Structure Mechanism of Action Penicillins Natural Penicillins: Penicillin G and Penicillin V Penicillinase-Resistant Penicillins Aminopenicillins β-Lactam–β-Lactamase Inhibitor Combinations Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. Ampicillin-sulbactam. Piperacillin-tazobactam. Adverse Effects and Sensitization Cephalosporins Pharmacokinetics First-Generation Cephalosporins Second-Generation Cephalosporins Cefaclor. Cefoxitin. Cefprozil. Cefuroxime. Cefuroxime axetil. Third-Generation Cephalosporins Cefotaxime. Ceftriaxone. Ceftazidime. Cefixime. Cefpodoxime proxetil. Ceftibuten. Cefdinir. Cefditoren pivoxil. Third-Generation Cephalosporin, β-Lactamase Combinations Ceftazidime-avibactam. Mechanisms of action. Mechanisms of resistance. In vitro activity. Pharmacokinetics. Indications for use. Adverse effects. Ceftolozane-tazobactam. Mechanisms of action. Mechanisms of resistance. In vitro activity. Pharmacokinetics. Indications for use. Fourth-Generation Cephalosporins Cefepime. Fifth-Generation Cephalosporins Ceftaroline. Mechanisms of action. Mechanisms of resistance. In vitro activity. Pharmacokinetics. Indications for use. Adverse effects. Adverse effects associated with cephalosporins in general. Monobactams Carbapenems Imipenem-Cilastatin Meropenem Mechanisms of action. Mechanisms of resistance. In vitro activity. Pharmacokinetics. Indications for use. Adverse effects. Ertapenem Doripenem Mechanisms of Resistance to β-Lactam Antibiotics Glycopeptides Vancomycin Mechanisms of action. Mechanisms of resistance. In Vitro activity. Pharmacokinetics. Indications for use. Adverse effects. Glycopeptides Telavancin Dalbavancin Mechanisms of action. In vitro activity. Pharmacokinetics. Indications for use. Adverse effects. Daptomycin Colistin (Colistimethate Sodium: Polymyxin E) Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Agents That Target Protein Synthesis Aminoglycosides Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Macrolides Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Chloramphenicol Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Tetracyclines Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Lincosamides Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Linezolid Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Tedizolid Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Rifamycins In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Antibiotics Interfering With Protein Synthesis Not Approved for Use in Children Agents That Target Nucleic Acid Fluoroquinolones Mechanisms of Action Mechanisms of Resistance In Vitro Activity Pharmacokinetics Indications for Use Adverse Effects Sulfonamides Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole Mechanisms of action. Mechanisms of resistance. In vitro activity. Pharmacokinetics. Indications for use. Adverse effects. Erythromycin Ethylsuccinate–Sulfisoxazole Acetyl Metronidazole Mechanisms of action. Mechanisms of resistance. Pharmacokinetics. Indications for use. Adverse effects. Selected Aspects of the Administration of Antimicrobial Agents Dosage Schedules for Infants and Children Dosage Schedules for Newborn Infants Should Dosages Be Determined by Weight or by Surface Area? Use of Oral Preparations for Serious Infections Food Interference With the Absorption of Some Oral Antibiotics Intravenous Versus Intramuscular Administration “Push” Versus “Steady” or “Continuous Drip” Intravenous Administration Diffusion of Antimicrobial Agents Across Biologic Membranes Duration of Therapy Dosage Schedules in Children With Renal or Hepatic Insufficiency Topical Use of Antimicrobial Agents Current Use of Antimicrobial Agents for Prophylaxis Use of Antimicrobial Agents for Children in School or Group Daycare Restriction on Use of Antimicrobial Agents for Infants and Children Home Intravenous Antibiotic Therapy Drug-Drug Interactions Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgements New References Since the Seventh Edition References 237 Antimicrobial Prophylaxis General Principles of Prophylaxis Bacterial Pathogen Disease Antimicrobial Agent Prophylaxis in Neonates Ophthalmia Neonatorum Group B Streptococcal Infections Necrotizing Enterocolitis Intravascular Catheter Insertion Disease-Targeted Prophylaxis Rheumatic Fever Primary Prevention Secondary Prevention Bacterial Endocarditis Recurrent Otitis Media Recurrent Urinary Tract Infection Postexposure Prophylaxis Pertussis Meningococcal Infections Haemophilus influenzae Type b Infections Tuberculosis Host-Targeted Prophylaxis Human and Animal Bites Asplenia Hemoglobinopathies Cerebrospinal Fluid Leakage Surgical Prophylaxis General Surgical Procedures Neurosurgical Procedures Cardiovascular Surgery New References Since the Seventh Edition References 238 Outpatient Intravenous Antimicrobial Therapy for Serious Infections Evaluating a Child and Parents for Outpatient Parenteral Antimicrobial Therapy Outpatient Parenteral Antimicrobial Therapy Program Infections Suitable for Outpatient Parenteral Antimicrobial Therapy Delivery of Antimicrobial Therapy Selection of an Antimicrobial Agent Delivery of Antimicrobial Agents Outcome Analysis Summary New References Since the Seventh Edition References 239 Antiviral Agents Antiviral Agents Active Against RNA Viruses Amantadine and Rimantadine Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Neuraminidase Inhibitors (Zanamivir, Oseltamivir, Peramivir, and Laninamivir) Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Ribavirin Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Pleconaril and Pocapavir Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Antiviral Agents Active Against DNA Viruses Acyclovir Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Valacyclovir Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Penciclovir Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Famciclovir Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Ganciclovir Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Valganciclovir Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Foscarnet Spectrum of Activity Mechanism of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Cidofovir and Brincidofovir Spectrum of Activity Mechanisms of Action and Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. Maribavir and Letermovir Spectrum of Activity and Mechanisms of Resistance Pharmacokinetics Clinical Indications, Dosage, and Adverse Effects Clinical indications. Dosage. Adverse effects. New References Since the Seventh Edition References 240 Antifungal Agents Agents for Treatment of Invasive Mycoses Polyene Antibiotics Amphotericin B Deoxycholate Mechanism of action. Antifungal activity. Pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Therapeutic monitoring. Drug interactions. Indications. Amphotericin B Lipid Formulations Physicochemical properties and pharmacokinetics. Safety and antifungal efficacy. Experience in pediatric patients. ABCD. ABLC. L-AmB. Indications. Flucytosine Antifungal activity. Pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Clinical indications. Antifungal Triazoles Mechanism of action. Antifungal activity. Resistance. Fluconazole Pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Clinical indications. Itraconazole Pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Clinical indications. Posaconazole Pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Clinical efficacy. Approval status and dosing. Voriconazole Pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Clinical efficacy. Approval status and dosing. Isavuconazole Pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Clinical efficacy. Approval status and dosing. Echinocandin Lipopeptides Mechanism of action. Antifungal activity. Resistance. Pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Caspofungin Clinical efficacy. Approval status and dosing. Anidulafungin Clinical efficacy. Approval status and dosing. Micafungin Clinical efficacy. Approval status and dosing. Agents for Systemic Treatment of Mycoses of the Skin and Its Appendages Griseofulvin Mechanism of action. Antifungal activity. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Indications. Terbinafine Antifungal activity. Pharmacokinetics. Adverse effects. Drug interactions. Clinical indications. Topical Antifungal Agents Topical Therapeutics for Superficial Skin Infections Topical Therapeutics for Mucosal Candidiasis Future Directions New References Since the Seventh Edition References 241 Drugs for Parasitic Infections* Principal Adverse Effects of Antiparasitic Drugs 242 Immunomodulating Agents Monoclonal Antibodies Monoclonal Antibody Preparations in Sepsis and Bacterial Infections Monoclonal Antibody Therapy for Viral Infections Cytokines Lymphokines and Monokines Colony-Stimulating Factors Interferons Interferon-α and Interferon-β Interferon-γ Toll-Like Receptors Neutrophils and Complement Bactericidal/Permeability-Increasing Factor and Defensins Platelet-Activating Factor Nitric Oxide Nanotechonology and Other Novel Techniques Conclusion New References Since the Seventh Editions References 243 Probiotics Definitions Probiotic Microorganisms Prebiotics and Synbiotics Mechanism of Action Probiotics and Prebiotics for Prevention and Treatment of Clinical Conditions Acute Infectious Diarrhea Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea Nosocomial Diarrhea Persistent Diarrhea Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders Helicobacter Pylori Infection Inflammatory Bowel Disease Liver Disease Allergic and Atopic Diseases Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Upper and Lower Respiratory Tract Infections Necrotizing Enterocolitis and Neonatal Sepsis Safety of Probiotics and Prebiotics in Infants and Children Infectious Diseases Related to Probiotic Use New References Since the Seventh Edition References 244 Health Care–Associated Infections Historical Background Spread of Communicable Infections in Health Care Facilities General Principles Modes of Transmission Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions Respiratory Viruses Pertussis Gastrointestinal Viruses Clostridium Difficile Other Gastrointestinal Bacteria Varicella Zoster Virus Cytomegalovirus Herpes Simplex Virus Measles, Mumps, and Rubella Viruses Parvovirus B19 Hepatitis A Virus Enteroviruses Tuberculosis Invasive Bacterial Infections Ectoparasites Intestinal Helminths Health Care–Associated Infections Due to Invasive Devices and Procedures Infections Related to Intravascular Catheters and Infusions Infections Related to Respiratory Therapy Infections Related to Instrumentation of the Urinary Tract Infections Related to Surgical Procedures Health Care–Associated Infections Caused by Special Pathogens Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacilli Clostridium Difficile Emerging and Reemerging Pathogens Health Care–Associated Infections in Special Populations Neonates Immunocompromised Children Children With Burns Children With Cystic Fibrosis Children Undergoing Dialysis Children in Long-Term Care Facilities Infection Prevention and Control Programs in Health Care Facilities Organization and Activities of Health Care Infection Control Programs Surveillance Strategies Outbreak Investigation Policies and Procedures Hand Hygiene Isolation Precautions Standard Precautions Transmission-Based Precautions Visitors Occupational Health Evaluation of Ill Health Care Workers Postexposure Evaluation and Management of Health Care Workers Prevention of Occupationally Acquired Infections by Health Care Workers Reprocessing of Reusable Patient Care Items Education and Training of Heath Care Workers Product Evaluation Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs in Health Care Facilities New References Since the Seventh Edition References 245 Active Immunizing Agents Active Immunoprophylaxis: Considerations and Recommendations Vaccines Immunization Schedules Route of Administration Vaccine Dose Lapsed Immunizations Simultaneous Administration of Multiple Vaccines Record Keeping, Patient Information, Informed Consent, and Reporting Vaccine Recommendations and Schedules Implementation of Vaccine Programs Vaccine Contraindications, Precautions, and Use in Special Circumstances Misconceptions International Travel Vaccine Safety Reference Sources Vaccines Recommended for Routine Administration Diphtheria Toxoid Preparations Immunogenicity Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Haemophilus influenzae Type b Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Hepatitis A Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Postexposure Prophylaxis Precautions and Contraindications Hepatitis B Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Contraindications Human Papillomavirus Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Contraindications and Precautions Influenza Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Measles Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Meningococcal Vaccine Preparations MenACWY vaccines. MenB vaccines. Immunogenicity and Efficacy MenACWY vaccines. MenB vaccine. Adverse Events MenACWY vaccines. MenB vaccine. Indications Meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Meningococcal conjugate vaccines. MenB vaccines. Postexposure Immunoprophylaxis Precautions and Contraindications Mumps Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Pertussis Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity Efficacy Adverse Events Serious Neurologic Illness Indications Contraindications and Precautions Pneumococcal Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Contraindications Poliovirus Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Rotavirus Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Contraindications and Precautions Rubella Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Tetanus Toxoid Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Preexposure indications. Antepartum indications. Postexposure wound management. Precautions and Contraindications Varicella Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Postexposure prophylaxis. Precautions and Contraindications Diseases for Which Combination Vaccines Are Available Vaccines With Selective Indications for Children and Adolescents Bacille Calmette-Guérin Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Skin Test Reactivity Precautions and Contraindications Cholera Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Japanese Encephalitis Virus Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Reactions Indications Precautions and Contraindications Rabies Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications and Precautions Postexposure prophylaxis. Preexposure prophylaxis. Precautions and Contraindications Typhoid Vaccine Preparations Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Contraindications Yellow Fever Vaccine Preparations Immunogenicity and Efficacy Adverse Events Indications Precautions and Contraindications Vaccines Related to Bioterrorism Investigational Vaccines New References Since the Seventh Edition References 246 Passive Immunization Principles of Passive Immunity Definition Animal Sera and Antitoxins Sensitivity Tests for Animal Serum Administration of Animal Serum Hypersensitivity Reactions to Animal Serum Treatment of Hypersensitivity Reactions to Animal Serum Human Immune Serum Globulin Intramuscular Immunoglobulin Pharmacology. Intramuscular immunoglobulin in antibody immunodeficiency. Intramuscular immunoglobulin and special intramuscular immunoglobulins for prevention of infectious diseases. Adverse effects of intramuscular immunoglobulin. Intravenous Immunoglobulin Pharmacology. Administration of intravenous immunoglobulin. Side effects of intravenous immunoglobulins. Severe immediate reactions. Immediate reactions in immunoglobulin A–deficient patients. Aseptic meningitis. Renal complications. Thrombotic complications. Rare side effects. Transmission of pathogens, including hepatitis C, by intravenous immunoglobulin. Intravenous immunoglobulin and intramuscular immunoglobulin inhibition of vaccine antibody responses. Intravenous immunoglobulin in primary immunodeficiencies. Special uses of intravenous immunoglobulin in antibody deficiencies. Subcutaneous Human Immunoglobulin Immunoglobulin Administration by Oral, Intrathecal, Aerosol, and Local Routes Oral immunoglobulin. Rotavirus infection. Necrotizing enterocolitis. Cryptosporidial infection. Other diarrheas. Aerosolized and intratracheal immunoglobulin. Intrathecal immunoglobulin. Other administration routes. Immunoglobulin in Secondary Immunodeficiencies Hematologic and Oncologic Diseases Protein-Losing States: Enteropathy, Nephrotic Syndrome, and Plastic Bronchitis Intensive Care Patients: Trauma, Surgery, and Septic Shock Prematurity Transplantation Burns Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Intravenous Immune Globulin in Immunoregulatory and Neurologic Disorders Monoclonal Antibodies Nomenclature and Structure Uses of monoclonal antibodies. Passive Immunity in Bacterial Diseases Anthrax Recommendations Botulism, Botulinum Antitoxin, and Botulism Immunoglobulin Recommendations Other Clostridial Infections Clostridium difficile Infections Recommendations. Gas Gangrene (Clostridium Perfringens) Tetanus (Clostridium tetani) Diphtheria and Diphtheria Antitoxin Recommendations Pertussis Recommendations Respiratory and Other Bacterial Infections Otitis Media Sinusitis Lower Respiratory Tract Infections Cystic Fibrosis Burn Infections Gram-Negative Infections Newborn Sepsis Staphylococcal Infections Staphylococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome Neonatal Staphylococcal Infections Refractory Staphylococcal Infections Recommendations Streptococcal Infections Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infections Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome PANDAS Syndrome and Sydenham Chorea Recommendations Tetanus, Tetanus Antitoxin, and Tetanus Immunoglobulin Recommendations Prophylaxis. Treatment. Passive Immunity in Viral Infections Enteroviruses Poliovirus Recommendations. Other Enteroviruses Meningoencephalitis. Neonatal enteroviral infection. Recommendations. Hepatitis A Recommendations Household and sexual contacts. School exposure. Institutional outbreaks. Hospital and clinic exposure. Common source exposure. Community outbreaks. Foreign travel. Primate exposure. Needle exposure. Newborn infants of infected mothers. Hepatitis B and Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin Immune Globulin Use in Hepatitis B Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin Prevention of Vertical Transmission Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin in Liver Transplantation Recommendations. Prophylaxis. Exposure to blood that contains or may contain hepatitis B surface antigen. Perinatal exposure. Infants born to mothers who are HbsAg positive. Term infants born to mothers not tested for HBsAg. Premature infants. Sexual exposure to hepatitis B or a carrier of hepatitis B. Possible exposure. Liver transplantation. Hepatitis C Experimental Hepatitis C Immunoglobulin Recommendations. Herpesviruses Cytomegalovirus Use of cytomegalovirus intravenous immunoglobulin or intravenous immunoglobulin in transplantation. Use of cytomegalovirus intravenous immunoglobulin in perinatal cytomegalovirus infection. Recommendations. Epstein-Barr Virus Recommendations. Herpes Simplex Infections Recommendations. Varicella-Zoster Virus and Varicella-Zoster Immunoglobulin Immunoglobulin for varicella. Varicella-zoster immunoglobulin for varicella. Intravenous immunoglobulin for varicella prophylaxis. Recommendations. Determination of susceptibility. Type of exposure. Candidates for varicella-zoster immunoglobulin or intravenous immunoglobulin. Normal adults, children, and adolescents. Immunocompromised children and adults. Term and premature newborns. Dosage. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Recommendations. Measles Recommendations. Mumps Parvovirus Recommendations. Rabies and Rabies Immunoglobulin Recommendations. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Respiratory Syncytial Virus Intravenous Immunoglobulin Palivizumab Passive Immunity in Respiratory Syncytial Virus Treatment Recommendations. Candidates for prophylaxis. Possible indications. Dosage and administration. Rotavirus Recommendations. Rubella Recommendations. Vaccinia, Variola, and Vaccinia Immunoglobulin Intramuscular Vaccinia Immunoglobulin and Intravenous Vaccinia Immunoglobulin Recommendations. Regional Viruses Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever Ebola Infection Recommendations. Tickborne Encephalitis Acknowledgments New References Since the Seventh Edition References 24 ■ Other Preventative Considerations 247 Public Health Aspects of Infectious Disease Control Public Health and Infectious Disease Clinicians Public Health Infectious Disease Surveillance How Public Health Can Assist Clinicians Outbreak Investigation Prepare for Fieldwork Public Health Prevention and Control Measures Isolation Quarantine Preexposure and Postexposure Prophylaxis Common Patterns of Disease Spread Animal-to-Person Spread Person-to-Person Spread Examples of Exposure Sources Contaminated Food Recreational Water Unpasteurized Milk Vectorborne Disease Bioterrorism and Natural Disasters Common Disease Transmission Settings Households Child Care Centers Schools Health Information for International Travel Summary New References Since the Seventh Edition References 248 Infections in Out-of-Home Child Care Factors Affecting Transmission of Infectious Agents Modes of Transmission of Infectious Diseases in Out-of-Home Child Care Respiratory Gastrointestinal Skin to Skin Blood, Urine, and Saliva Prevention and Control of Infections in Out-of-Home Child Care Written Policies Hand Hygiene Environment and Physical Plant Standards Food Preparation Immunization and Screening of Children and Staff Exclusion Policy Prophylaxis of Close Contacts Education Infectious Agents in Child Care Infections Spread by the Respiratory Route Upper Respiratory Infections Systemic Viral Infections Parvovirus B19. Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease. Local Bacterial Infections Streptococcus pyogenes or Group A Streptococcus. Invasive Bacterial Disease Kingella kingae. Neisseria meningitidis. Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract Parasitic Infections Giardia lamblia. Cryptosporidium. Bacterial Pathogens Shigella. Salmonella. Clostridium difficile. Shiga toxin−producing strains of Escherichia coli. Viral Gastrointestinal Pathogens Infections Spread by Skin Contact Staphylococcus aureus Scabies Head Lice Infections Spread by Contact With Blood, Urine, or Saliva Cytomegalovirus Herpes Simplex Virus Human Immunodeficiency Virus Vaccine-Preventable Diseases Diphtheria Haemophilus influenzae Type B Streptococcus pneumoniae Influenza Varicella Measles Rubella Pertussis Poliomyelitis Mumps Rotavirus Hepatitis A Virus Hepatitis B Virus New References Since Seventh Edition References 249 Animal and Human Bites Historical Aspects Epidemiology Microbiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Treatment Reptile Bites Prevention New References Since the Seventh Edition References 250 Bioterrorism History Epidemiology Critical Biologic Agents Anthrax Smallpox Plague Tularemia Botulism Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Preparedness and Response New References Since the Seventh Edition References 251 Bacterial Laboratory Diagnosis Culture-Based Detection Specimen-Specific Collection and Cultivation Requirements Bloodstream Infection Respiratory Tract Infections Central Nervous System Infections Urinary Tract Infections Gastrointestinal Infections Non–Culture-Based Detection Methods Microscopy Mass Spectrometry Molecular Diagnostic Techniques Molecular Methods for Atypical Organisms Bordetella pertussis Tuberculosis Clostridium difficile Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis Sequence-Based Technologies New References Since the Seventh Edition References 252 Fungal Laboratory Analysis Specimen Collection Direct Detection Primary Isolation Media New References Since the Seventh Edition References 253 Viral Laboratory Diagnosis Specimen Collection and Transport Specimen Collection Sites Collection of Specimens Throat Nose and Nasopharynx Other Respiratory Specimens (Sputum, Tracheal Aspirates, Bronchial Washings, Bronchoalveolar Lavage) Eye Body Fluids Other Than Blood Lesions Stool and Rectal Specimens Blood Bone Marrow Biopsy Specimens Autopsy Specimens Transport to the Laboratory Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections Virus Isolation Traditional Culture Modified Culture Direct Detection Cytology Antigen Detection Immunofluorescence Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays Nucleic Acid Detection CLIA-Waived Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests Single-Analyte Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests Multiplexed Assays Highly Multiplexed Assays Viral Nucleic Acid Quantitation Assays Summary New References Since The Seventh Edition Reference 254 Parasitic Laboratory Diagnosis Stool Specimens for Detection of Intestinal Parasites Other Specimens for DeteCtion of Intestinal Parasites Stool Processing and Examination for Parasites Blood Parasites Blood Processing and Examination for Parasites Urogenital Specimens Serology Other Specimens New References Since the Seventh Edition References Copyright Title Page Dedication Contents Chapter 1: ‘I’m thinking’ – Oh, but are you? Chapter 2: Renegade perception Chapter 3: The Pushbacker sting Chapter 4: ‘Covid’: The calculated catastrophe Chapter 5: There is no ‘virus’ Chapter 6: Sequence of deceit Chapter 7: War on your mind Chapter 8: ‘Reframing’ insanity Chapter 9: We must have it? So what is it? Chapter 10: Human 2.0 Chapter 11: Who controls the Cult? Chapter 12: Escaping Wetiko Postscript Appendix: Cowan-Kaufman-Morell Statement on Virus Isolation Bibliography Index
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