Exploring the X-ray Universe

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
List of acronyms......Page 12
Foreword......Page 15
1.1 The discovery of X-rays......Page 17
1.3 The difficulties of observing X-rays from stars......Page 18
1.4 Electromagnetic radiation and the atmosphere......Page 19
1.5 The environment in space......Page 20
1.7 Sco X-1......Page 21
1.8 An early history of the X-ray sky......Page 22
Observation......Page 26
Catalogues, reviews......Page 27
2.1.1 Thermal emission from a hot gas......Page 28
2.1.2 Synchrotron radiation from relativistic electrons......Page 29
2.1.3 Inverse Compton X-rays from relativistic electrons......Page 30
2.1.4 Blackbody radiation from starlike objects......Page 31
2.2 Interaction of X-rays with matter......Page 32
References......Page 33
3.1.1 The proportional counter......Page 34
3.1.1.1 Imaging proportional counters......Page 35
3.1.4 Channel electron multiplier and micro-channel plate......Page 36
3.1.5 Solid state detector and charge-coupled devices......Page 37
3.1.7 Detection of polarisation......Page 39
3.2.3 Coded mask......Page 40
3.2.5 Mirrors and telescopes......Page 41
3.3.2 Diffractive spectroscopy......Page 43
3.4 Timing......Page 45
3.5.3 HEAO-1: An all-sky survey......Page 46
3.5.6 ROSAT: Deep all-sky survey......Page 47
3.5.8 Rossi XTE: High temporal resolution......Page 48
3.5.9 BeppoSAX: Broadband spectroscopy......Page 49
3.5.10 Chandra: Really high spatial resolution......Page 50
3.5.13 Swift: Fast response for gamma-ray bursts......Page 51
Instruments, spacecraft and techniques......Page 53
Reviews......Page 54
4.2 Earth......Page 55
4.2.2 Scattering and fluorescence......Page 56
4.3 The Moon......Page 58
4.3.1 What is the lunar surface made of?......Page 59
4.4 Comets......Page 60
4.5 Jupiter......Page 61
4.5.1 High-resolution imaging of Jupiter......Page 62
4.7 Venus and Mars......Page 63
Jupiter and Saturn......Page 65
Comets and asteroids......Page 66
5.1 The Interstellar Medium......Page 67
5.2 Absorption of X-rays by interstellar gas......Page 68
5.3 Shadows......Page 70
5.5 Scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust......Page 71
5.5.1.2 Cyg X-3......Page 74
References......Page 75
6.1.1 An historical puzzle......Page 76
6.1.2 Structure of the corona......Page 78
6.1.3 Solar flares......Page 79
6.2 The Einstein stellar X-ray survey......Page 81
6.3 The dynamo model and stars with very low Lx......Page 84
6.4 Coronal emission from binary systems......Page 85
6.4.2 Giant starspots on RS CVn stars......Page 86
6.4.4 Eclipse imaging of coronal structure......Page 88
6.5 High-resolution X-ray spectra......Page 90
6.6 X-ray Doppler imaging......Page 92
6.7 Flare stars......Page 93
6.8 Young stars......Page 95
6.8.1 The Chandra Orion survey......Page 96
6.8.2 Discs, jets and planets......Page 97
6.9 Summary......Page 98
Books and reviews......Page 99
7.1 O stars......Page 100
7.2 X-rays......Page 101
7.3 Stellar winds......Page 102
7.4 X-rays from single stars......Page 103
7.5 Colliding winds......Page 105
7.6 Eta Carinae......Page 106
7.7 O stars in the Carina Nebula......Page 108
7.8 Superbubbles......Page 109
7.9 The astronomer views the rest of the world......Page 111
Catalogues, reviews, popular......Page 112
8.1 Introduction......Page 113
8.3 Evolution to the explosion......Page 115
8.3.1 Type Ia explosions: White dwarf ignition in a binary system......Page 116
8.3.2 Type II explosions: Gravitational collapse of the stellar core......Page 117
8.4.2 SN 1987A......Page 119
8.4.2.2 X-ray emission......Page 120
8.4.3 Supernova 1993J......Page 121
8.5 Evolution of supernova remnants......Page 122
8.5.2.1 The reverse shock in the ejecta......Page 123
8.5.2.2 Rayleigh-Taylor instability and clumps......Page 125
8.6.1.1 Discovery......Page 127
8.6.1.3 Modelling the X-ray spectrum reveals the progenitor......Page 129
8.6.2.2 X-ray spectra......Page 131
8.6.4 SNR 0102-72.3 in the Small Magellanic Cloud (type II)......Page 132
8.7 Dominated by their surroundings: Older remnants......Page 134
8.7.2 Mixed-morphology remnants......Page 135
References......Page 137
Catalogues, reviews, popular......Page 138
9.1 Discovery and nature of neutron stars......Page 139
9.2 The Crab Nebula......Page 140
9.3 Rotation and spindown......Page 142
9.4 The glitch......Page 143
9.5 Pulsed radiation......Page 145
9.7 Cooling......Page 146
9.8 Pulsar wind nebulae......Page 149
9.10 Anomalous pulsars, soft-gamma repeaters and magnetars......Page 151
9.11.1 The Vela supernova remnant......Page 152
9.11.4 CTB 109......Page 155
9.12 Summary......Page 156
Observation......Page 157
Reviews, catalogues, popular......Page 158
10.1 Introduction......Page 159
10.2 Geometry of accretion in CVs......Page 162
10.2.1 Accretion disc spectrum......Page 163
10.3 Dwarf nova outbursts......Page 164
10.4.1 Testing the disc instability model......Page 167
10.4.3.1 Optical and X-ray flickering......Page 168
10.5 How do CVs form and evolve?......Page 169
10.5.1 Evolution to short periods......Page 170
10.6 Magnetic CVs......Page 172
10.6.1 AM Her systems (polars)......Page 173
10.6.1.1 Polars accreting on two poles......Page 174
10.6.2 Intermediate Polars......Page 175
10.6.2.1 AE Aqr: A magnetic propellor......Page 176
10.7 X-ray spectroscopy of CVs......Page 178
10.9 Supersoft sources......Page 180
References......Page 184
11.1.1 The discovery of binary behaviour......Page 187
11.1.2 Field guide to X-ray double stars......Page 190
11.2.1 Discovery of X-ray pulsars......Page 193
11.2.2 Spinning X-ray pulsars up and down......Page 198
11.2.3 Accreting from a stellar wind......Page 200
11.2.4 Be stars and X-ray pulsars......Page 201
11.2.5 X-ray spectroscopy of HMXBs......Page 204
11.2.7 Evolution of an HMXB......Page 207
11.2.8 Extreme mass transfer in HMXBs: The microquasar SS433......Page 208
11.2.8.1 How SS433 was (re-)discovered......Page 210
11.2.8.2 The moving lines......Page 211
11.2.8.3 Relativistic Jets......Page 212
11.2.8.5 SS433 as an X-ray binary......Page 214
11.2.8.6 X-ray spectroscopy of the jets......Page 215
11.2.8.7 The importance of SS433......Page 216
11.3.1 Fundamental properties......Page 217
11.3.2 Searching for binary behaviour......Page 219
11.3.3 High-inclination binaries: X-ray dippers......Page 220
11.3.3.1 Accretion disc coronae......Page 223
11.3.3.2 X-ray spectroscopy of the disc corona......Page 224
11.3.4 X-ray bursters......Page 225
11.3.4.1 Thermonuclear burning on neutron stars......Page 226
11.3.4.2 Photospheric radius expansion (PRE) bursts......Page 229
11.3.4.3 Spectroscopy of X-ray bursts......Page 230
11.3.4.4 The Rapid Burster......Page 231
11.3.4.5 Optical bursts too?......Page 233
11.3.4.6 Superbursts......Page 234
11.3.5 Quasiperiodic oscillations......Page 235
11.3.5.1 The beat-frequency model......Page 238
11.3.5.2 Discovery of kilohertz QPOs......Page 239
11.3.6.1 Neutron star signatures......Page 241
11.3.6.4 SAX J1808.4-3658......Page 242
11.3.6.5 Burst oscillations......Page 243
11.4.1 Background......Page 244
11.4.2 X-ray bursts and precise X-ray locations......Page 246
11.4.3 Formation of binary X-ray sources in clusters......Page 248
11.4.3.1 NGC 6624 (4U1820-30): The shortest orbital period known......Page 249
11.4.5 Origin and evolution of globular cluster X-ray sources......Page 250
11.4.5.1 The final phase: Millisecond radio pulsars......Page 253
References......Page 255
12.1.2 Black holes in binary systems......Page 258
12.1.3 Black holes represent the ultimate test for physics......Page 259
12.3 Observed properties......Page 260
12.4 Soft X-ray transients (or X-ray novae)......Page 262
12.4.1 The distorted secondary star......Page 263
12.5 Eclipsing black-hole binaries......Page 265
12.6 Spectra of XRN......Page 266
12.6.2 Formation of jets in XRN: Microquasars......Page 267
12.6.3 Unified model for state transitions and jet formation......Page 269
12.7 Black-hole spin......Page 270
12.8.1 Direct evidence for the existence of an event horizon?......Page 271
References......Page 272
13.1 X-ray sources in the Milky Way......Page 274
13.2 The Milky Way and the Local Group......Page 275
13.2.1 Limits of source detection......Page 276
13.3 Surveys of the Magellanic Clouds......Page 277
13.4 M31......Page 279
13.5 M33......Page 281
13.6.1 M82......Page 282
13.6.2 M83......Page 283
13.7 The centre of the Milky Way......Page 284
13.8 Elliptical galaxies......Page 286
13.9 Colliding galaxies......Page 287
13.10.1 Identification via spectra......Page 289
13.10.2 X-ray binaries......Page 290
Observations......Page 291
Catalogues and reviews......Page 292
14.1 Introduction......Page 293
14.2.1 Deep X-ray surveys with Chandra and XMM......Page 295
14.3 The unified model of AGN: What is the central engine?......Page 297
14.4.1 Reverberation: NGC4151......Page 299
14.4.2 Resolving the disc with HST......Page 301
14.4.3.2 Getting closer to the event horizon......Page 302
14.4.4 Water masers in NGC 4258......Page 305
14.4.5 Stellar proper motions in the Galactic Centre......Page 306
14.5.1 Background: M87 and Cygnus A......Page 308
14.5.2 Our nearest active galaxy: Centaurus A......Page 309
14.5.3 Detailed jet structure......Page 310
14.5.4 BL Lac Objects......Page 311
14.5.4.1 Precessing jets?......Page 312
14.6.1 Accretion discs in AGN......Page 313
14.7 Towards the central engine: X-ray variability timescales......Page 314
14.7.1 Long-term X-ray light curves of AGN......Page 315
14.8 Outflowing winds in AGN......Page 317
14.9 Summary......Page 320
References......Page 321
15.2 Properties of clusters: The optical legacy......Page 322
15.4 Evolution......Page 324
15.5 Groups and clusters......Page 325
15.6 X-ray observations of ICM temperature and morphology......Page 326
15.7 The Coma Cluster: Rich, regular and almost relaxed......Page 328
15.8 A2029: Rich, regular and relaxed, with cool centre and cD galaxy......Page 361
15.9 A2142: Cold fronts......Page 363
15.11 M87 and the Virgo Cluster......Page 365
15.12 The Perseus Cluster: AGN, cavities and sound waves......Page 367
15.13 The relation of mass, temperature and X-ray luminosity......Page 368
15.14 Distant clusters......Page 369
15.15 The Sunyaev-Zeldovitch (SZ) effect......Page 370
Observation and theory......Page 371
Catalogues, reviews, popular......Page 372
16.1 Early observations, 1965......Page 373
16.2.1 A background map......Page 374
16.2.2 Spectrum of the background......Page 375
16.3.1 Einstein 0.3–3.5 keV, 1979......Page 376
16.3.3 Chandra and XMM, 0.2–8 keV, 1999......Page 378
16.4 Extragalactic source populations and cosmic variance......Page 379
16.5.1 3–30 keV, HEAO-1......Page 380
16.5.2 The Galactic Ridge, 2–20 keV, Ginga and RXTE......Page 381
16.6.1 The big picture......Page 382
16.6.3 The sky at 1/4 keV......Page 383
16.6.4 Spectrum of the soft background......Page 385
Observations......Page 386
Reviews......Page 387
17.1 Discovery......Page 388
17.2.2 GRB distribution on the sky......Page 389
17.3 Afterglow and precise location......Page 390
17.3.1 The first afterglow......Page 391
17.3.2.1 GRB 990123......Page 392
17.3.2.2 GRB 030329......Page 393
17.4.1 Long bursts......Page 395
17.4.2 Short GRBs......Page 397
17.4.5 X-ray flash from SN 2008D......Page 398
17.6 The last word......Page 399
Observation......Page 400
Catalogues, reviews, popular......Page 401
Index......Page 402