Exploring research

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright Page......Page 3
Contents......Page 6
 How This Book Is Organized......Page 10
 A Note to the Instructor......Page 11
 Acknowledgments for the Global Edition......Page 12
 Say Hello to Research!......Page 14
 What Research Is and What It Isn’t......Page 15
 A Model of Scientific Inquiry......Page 17
  Formulating a Hypothesis......Page 18
  Working with the Hypothesis......Page 19
  Nonexperimental Research......Page 20
  Experimental Research......Page 22
  Quasi-Experimental Research......Page 23
 Basic Research versus Applied Research......Page 24
 Summary......Page 25
 Exercises......Page 26
 From Problem to Solution......Page 28
  Dependent Variables......Page 30
  Independent Variables......Page 31
 Other Important Types of Variables......Page 32
  The Null Hypothesis......Page 33
  The Research Hypothesis......Page 34
  What Makes a Good Hypothesis?......Page 35
 The Concept of Significance......Page 37
 Exercises......Page 38
Chapter 3A: Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the Research......Page 41
 Selecting a Problem......Page 42
 Defining Your Interests......Page 43
 Ideas, Ideas, Ideas (and What to Do with Them)......Page 44
 From Idea to Research Question to Hypothesis......Page 45
 Reviewing the Literature......Page 46
 Using General Sources......Page 47
  Using Secondary Sources......Page 50
  Using Primary Sources......Page 51
  What Does a Research Article Look Like?......Page 57
  Criteria for Judging a Research Study......Page 58
  The Great Search Engines......Page 59
  Using Boolean Operators in a Search......Page 61
  More about Google......Page 62
  Using Bibliographic Database Programs......Page 64
  Research Activities and the Internet......Page 66
  A Bit about E-Mail......Page 67
  An Introduction to News Groups and RSS Feeds......Page 68
  And, Just a Bit about Web Sites......Page 70
  Using Social Media in Research......Page 71
 Writing the Literature Review......Page 73
 Summary......Page 74
 Exercises......Page 75
 A Bit of History......Page 77
 Basic Principles of Ethical Research......Page 78
  Coercion......Page 79
  Informed Consent......Page 80
  Debriefing......Page 81
 Ensuring High Ethical Standards......Page 82
  Ethics and Children......Page 83
  Summary......Page 84
  Exercises......Page 85
 Populations and Samples......Page 86
  Simple Random Sampling......Page 87
  Systematic Sampling......Page 89
  Stratified Sampling......Page 90
  Quota Sampling......Page 91
 Samples, Sample Size, and Sampling Error......Page 92
 How Big Is Big?......Page 93
 Exercises......Page 94
 Levels of Measurement......Page 96
  Nominal......Page 97
  Interval......Page 98
  Continuous versus Discrete Variables......Page 99
 Reliability and Validity: Why They Are Very, Very Important......Page 100
  A Conceptual Definition of Reliability......Page 101
  Increasing Reliability......Page 102
  Types of Reliability......Page 103
  Establishing Reliability: An Example......Page 105
  Types of Validity......Page 106
  Establishing Validity: An Example......Page 108
 Closing (and Very Important) Thoughts......Page 109
 Summary......Page 110
 Exercises......Page 111
Chapter 6: Methods of Measuring Behavior......Page 113
  Why Use Tests?......Page 114
  Achievement Tests......Page 115
  Multiple-Choice Achievement Items......Page 116
  Attitude Tests......Page 120
  Observational Techniques......Page 122
  Techniques for Recording Behavior......Page 123
  Questionnaires......Page 124
 Exercises......Page 127
 Getting Ready for Data Collection......Page 129
  Constructing Data Collection Forms......Page 130
  The Ten Commandments of Data Collection......Page 132
 Getting Ready for Data Analysis......Page 133
  Distributions of Scores......Page 134
  Measures of Central Tendency......Page 135
  You and Excel—Computing Measures of Central Tendency......Page 137
  The Standard Deviation......Page 138
 Understanding Distributions......Page 139
  The Mean and the Standard Deviation......Page 140
  Standard Scores: Computing and Using z Scores......Page 142
 Summary......Page 143
 Exercises......Page 144
  How Inference Works......Page 145
  The Central Limit Theorem......Page 146
 The Idea of Statistical Significance......Page 148
  How a Test of Significance Works......Page 149
  t-Test for Independent Means......Page 150
  How to Select the Appropriate Test......Page 152
  Some Other Tests of Significance......Page 153
  Working with More Than One Dependent Variable......Page 155
 Significance versus Meaningfulness......Page 156
 Meta-Analysis......Page 157
  How Meta-Analyses Are Done......Page 158
 Exercises......Page 159
 Descriptive Research......Page 161
  Survey Research......Page 162
  How to Conduct Survey Research......Page 164
  What Correlation Coefficients Look Like......Page 166
  Computing the Pearson Correlation Coefficient......Page 167
  Interpreting the Pearson Correlation Coefficient......Page 169
 Exercises......Page 171
  How Qualitative Research Differs......Page 173
  Direct Observation......Page 174
  Focus Groups......Page 175
  Some Advantages of the Case Study Method......Page 176
 Ethnographies......Page 177
  Conducting Historical Research......Page 178
  Sources of Historical Data......Page 179
  Primary or Secondary Sources: Which Are Best?......Page 180
  Authenticity and Accuracy......Page 181
 Summary......Page 182
 Exercises......Page 183
Chapter 11: Pre- and True Experimental Research Methods......Page 184
  Pre-Experimental Designs......Page 185
  True Experimental Designs......Page 186
  Threats to Internal Validity......Page 188
  Increasing Internal and External Validity......Page 190
 Controlling Extraneous Variables......Page 191
  Analysis of Covariance......Page 192
 Exercises......Page 193
 The Quasi-Experimental Method......Page 195
  The Nonequivalent Control Group Design......Page 196
 Single-Subject Designs......Page 197
  Multiple Baseline Designs......Page 199
  Developmental Research......Page 200
  The Role of Age in Studying Development......Page 202
 Exercises......Page 203
 The Format of a Research Proposal......Page 205
 Evaluating the Studies You Read......Page 206
  Criteria for Judging a Research Study......Page 207
  Selecting a Dependent Variable......Page 208
 Selecting a Sample......Page 210
  Data Collection and Analysis......Page 211
 Exercises......Page 212
  Abstract......Page 213
  References......Page 214
 Summary......Page 215
Appendix A: Fifty Excel Shortcuts for the Mac and Windows......Page 238
Appendix B: Sample Data Set......Page 241
Appendix C: Answers to End-of-Chapter Exercises......Page 246
Bibliography......Page 258
Glossary......Page 260
Credits......Page 265
 D......Page 266
 H......Page 267
 M......Page 268
 R......Page 269
 S......Page 270
 Z......Page 271