Experimental Physics: Principles and Practice for the Laboratory

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				Preface	#8,0,-32767Acknowledgments	#12,0,-32767Part I Fundamentals	#14,0,-32767	1 Introduction	#16,0,-32767	2 Planning and Carrying Out Experiments	#20,0,-32767		2.1 Literature Research	#20,0,-32767		2.2 Reading Scientific Papers	#21,0,-32767		2.3 Experimental Design	#22,0,-32767		2.4 Modeling	#24,0,-32767		2.5 Important Guidelines for Conducting Experiments	#26,0,-32767			Preparation	#26,0,-32767			Safety	#26,0,-32767			Pilot Testing	#26,0,-32767			Taking Data	#26,0,-32767		2.6 Lab Notebooks	#26,0,-32767		2.7 Troubleshooting	#27,0,-32767	3 Presenting Your Results	#32,0,-32767		3.1 The Process of Scientific Communication	#32,0,-32767		3.2 Data Visualization	#33,0,-32767			Graphs	#33,0,-32767			Images	#35,0,-32767			Diagrams	#35,0,-32767		3.3 Writing Scientific Papers	#36,0,-32767		3.4 Preparing, Delivering, and Listening to Talks	#39,0,-32767			Listening to Talks	#39,0,-32767		3.5 Preparing and Presenting Posters	#40,0,-32767	4 Uncertainty and Statistics	#42,0,-32767		4.1 Random vs. Systematic Errors	#43,0,-32767			Accuracy vs. Precision	#43,0,-32767			Where Do These Systematic Errors Come From?	#44,0,-32767		4.2 Methods of Determining Uncertainty	#45,0,-32767			Instrumental Uncertainty	#45,0,-32767			Multiple Trials	#45,0,-32767		4.3 Standard Error of the Mean and Probability Distributions	#45,0,-32767			4.3.1 Sample vs Population and the Gaussian Distribution	#45,0,-32767			4.3.2 Standard Deviation vs. Standard Error of the Mean	#47,0,-32767			4.3.3 Other Distributions	#47,0,-32767			4.3.4 Median and Mode	#47,0,-32767		4.4 Confidence Intervals	#48,0,-32767		4.5 Student’s t-Distribution	#49,0,-32767		4.6 Significant Figures	#51,0,-32767		4.7 Quantitative Comparisons, or How Not to Be Misled by Error Bars	#51,0,-32767		4.8 Propagating Errors	#52,0,-32767			Direct Substitution	#52,0,-32767			Linear Approximation	#53,0,-32767			Multiple Error Contributions	#53,0,-32767			Addition in Quadrature	#53,0,-32767		4.9 More of the Instrumental Uncertainty Method, Including “Absolute Tolerance”	#54,0,-32767		4.10 Parameter Fitting	#56,0,-32767		4.11 Measurement Errors and χ2 (also known as chi square)	#60,0,-32767			Interpreting χ2	#60,0,-32767			Fitting Routines and How to Make Them Work for You	#61,0,-32767			Outliers and Outlier Rejection	#62,0,-32767		4.12 What to Do When Something Goes Wrong	#63,0,-32767		4.13 Homework Problems	#64,0,-32767		Acknowledgment	#65,0,-32767	5 Scientific Ethics	#66,0,-32767		5.1 A Brief Overview of Scientific Ethics	#67,0,-32767		5.2 FFP: The Cardinal Sins	#67,0,-32767		5.3 Data Ethics	#69,0,-32767		5.4 Publishing and Credit	#71,0,-32767		5.5 Academia	#73,0,-32767		5.6 Equality and Equity	#75,0,-32767		5.7 Financial Considerations	#76,0,-32767		5.8 Safety	#78,0,-32767		5.9 Communication	#79,0,-32767		5.10 Regulations	#81,0,-32767		5.11 Choice of Research	#82,0,-32767Part II Tools of an Experimentalist	#84,0,-32767	6 Analog Electronics	#86,0,-32767		6.1 Introduction	#87,0,-32767		6.2 Input and Output Impedance: Part 1	#87,0,-32767			Motivation, Voltage Dividers	#87,0,-32767			Introduction	#88,0,-32767			What Is an Ideal Battery?	#88,0,-32767			Ground vs. Common, Behavior of Real Batteries with “No Load” vs. with Rload	#89,0,-32767			Definition of Output Impedance	#90,0,-32767			How to Measure Output Impedance	#90,0,-32767			Generalization of Output Impedance, Perfect Buffers	#91,0,-32767			Functional Blocks, the Scientific Debugging Process	#91,0,-32767			Input Impedance	#92,0,-32767			An Example of Complex Input Impedance	#92,0,-32767			Combining the Ideas of Input and Output Impedance: Loading Effects	#93,0,-32767			How to Measure Input Impedance	#94,0,-32767		6.3 Input and Output Impedance: Part 2	#95,0,-32767			How to Calculate Input Impedance by Looking at a Schematic Diagram	#95,0,-32767			How to Calculate Output Impedance by Looking at a Schematic Diagram	#96,0,-32767			Back to Our Motivational Example	#97,0,-32767			Other Examples, Application to Debugging	#97,0,-32767			Input and Output Impedance of Filters	#98,0,-32767		6.4 Amplifier Fundamentals	#99,0,-32767		6.5 Capacitively Coupled Interference	#101,0,-32767		6.6 Common vs. Ground, Inductively Coupled Interference, and Ground Loops	#102,0,-32767			Common vs. Ground	#102,0,-32767			Single-Ended vs. Differential Amplifiers	#103,0,-32767			Inductively Coupled Interference	#104,0,-32767			Background	#104,0,-32767				Interference in a Circuit	#106,0,-32767			How to Minimize It	#106,0,-32767			Ground Loops	#107,0,-32767		6.7 Noise	#109,0,-32767			Noise Amplitude	#110,0,-32767			Combining Noise Sources	#112,0,-32767			Fourier Spectral Characteristics of Noise	#113,0,-32767		6.8 Negative Feedback and Op Amps	#117,0,-32767		6.9 Bode Plots and Oscillations from the Feedback Loop	#117,0,-32767		6.10 Simulation of Analog Circuits	#117,0,-32767		Lab 6A Input and Output Impedance Revisited, Surprising Effects of Capacitance	#117,0,-32767		Introduction	#118,0,-32767		Lab 6B Intermediate-level Scope Mastery	#120,0,-32767		Introduction	#121,0,-32767		Lab 6C Introduction to Amplifiers, Capacitively Coupled Interference, and Feedback Oscillations	#123,0,-32767		Introduction	#123,0,-32767		Lab 6D Inductively Coupled Interference and Ground Loops	#127,0,-32767		Lab 6E Amplifier Noise and Introduction to LabVIEW	#132,0,-32767			Part 1: DC Offsets and Amplifier Noise	#132,0,-32767			Part 2: Introduction to LabVIEW	#134,0,-32767		Lab 6F Lock-In Amplifiers	#137,0,-32767			Introduction and Background	#137,0,-32767			Experimental Procedure	#143,0,-32767		Lab 6G Introduction to Op Amps	#145,0,-32767		Lab 6H More on Op Amps	#145,0,-32767		6.11 Homework Problems	#145,0,-32767	7 Fundamentals of Interfacing Experiments with Computers	#146,0,-32767		7.1 Introduction: The Difference between Digital and Analog	#146,0,-32767			Approaches to Interfacing	#147,0,-32767		7.2 Sampling Rate, Resolution, and the Importance of Analog Amplification	#148,0,-32767		7.3 The Nyquist Frequency, Aliasing, Windowing, and Experimental Fourier Analysis	#149,0,-32767			Aliasing	#152,0,-32767			Windowing	#153,0,-32767		7.4 Preview of the Arduino	#155,0,-32767	8 Digital Electronics	#156,0,-32767		8.1 Introduction	#157,0,-32767		8.2 Truth Tables	#157,0,-32767		8.3 Gates	#158,0,-32767			8.3.1 Basic Gates	#158,0,-32767			8.3.2 Multi-Gate Circuits	#160,0,-32767			8.3.3 CMOS Logic Gates	#161,0,-32767		8.4 Boolean Algebra	#161,0,-32767			8.4.1 Variables	#162,0,-32767			8.4.2 Operators	#162,0,-32767			8.4.3 Expressions	#162,0,-32767			8.4.4 Algebraic Relations	#162,0,-32767		8.5 Logic Design	#164,0,-32767			8.5.1 Sum-of-Products	#164,0,-32767			8.5.2 Product-of-Sums	#165,0,-32767		8.6 Common Logic Functions	#166,0,-32767			8.6.1 Coders/Decoders	#166,0,-32767		8.7 Arithmetic Logic	#168,0,-32767			8.7.1 Half-Adder	#168,0,-32767			8.7.2 The Full-Adder	#168,0,-32767		8.8 Sequential Logic	#169,0,-32767			8.8.1 The Flip-Flop	#169,0,-32767			8.8.2 Switch De-Bouncing with the  Flip-Flop	#170,0,-32767			8.8.3 Simple Counters	#172,0,-32767		8.9 Synchronous Logic	#173,0,-32767			8.9.1 Describing Synchronous Systems	#174,0,-32767			8.9.2 Designing Synchronous Circuits with D-Type Flip-Flops	#175,0,-32767			8.9.3 Excluded States in Synchronous Logic	#176,0,-32767			8.9.4 External Inputs	#176,0,-32767			8.9.5 Resetting Synchronous Circuits	#177,0,-32767		8.10 Introduction to Verilog	#178,0,-32767		Lab 8A Digital Logic	#178,0,-32767		8A.1 Combinatorial Logic	#178,0,-32767		8A.2 Sequential Logic	#180,0,-32767		8A.3 Synchronous Sequential Machines	#182,0,-32767		Lab 8B Controlling the World with Arduino	#183,0,-32767		Lab 8C Interfacing an Experiment with Arduino	#195,0,-32767		Lab 8D Arduino Motor Control	#201,0,-32767		Lab 8E Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)	#206,0,-32767	9 Data Acquisition and Experiment Control with Python	#208,0,-32767		Learning Goals	#209,0,-32767		9.1 Overview	#209,0,-32767			9.1.1 Automation Technologies	#209,0,-32767			9.1.2 What This Chapter Is Really About	#211,0,-32767		9.2 Safety Precautions	#211,0,-32767			9.2.1 Automation Risks	#211,0,-32767		9.3 Python: An Introduction and Primer	#212,0,-32767			9.3.1 Programming Best Practices	#212,0,-32767			9.3.2 Self-Guided Python Tutorial	#214,0,-32767			9.3.3 Working with Python Files	#217,0,-32767		9.4 Warm-up Experiment	#219,0,-32767			9.4.1 Materials	#219,0,-32767			9.4.2 Complete Warm-Up Experiment	#220,0,-32767		9.5 Experiment	#222,0,-32767			9.5.1 Materials	#223,0,-32767			9.5.2 Hardware Limitations	#223,0,-32767			9.5.3 Experimental Setup	#224,0,-32767			9.5.4 Understanding LabJack Streaming	#224,0,-32767			9.5.5 Plan the Software Workflow	#224,0,-32767			9.5.6 Create Automation Script	#228,0,-32767			9.5.7 Performing Useful Science with Your Experimental System	#228,0,-32767		9.6 Advanced Lab: Leverage the PLACE Framework	#229,0,-32767		9.7 Homework Problems	#237,0,-32767	10 Basic Optics Techniques and Hardware	#240,0,-32767		10.1 Laser Safety	#241,0,-32767		10.2 Lasers	#242,0,-32767		10.3 Optical Hardware	#242,0,-32767			Optical Tables and Breadboards	#242,0,-32767			Posts, Postholders, and Pedestals	#243,0,-32767		10.4 Optical Elements	#245,0,-32767			Lenses	#246,0,-32767			Mirrors	#247,0,-32767			Neutral Density Filters	#248,0,-32767			Beamsplitters	#248,0,-32767			Polarizers and Waveplates	#249,0,-32767		10.5 Beam Expanders	#251,0,-32767		10.6 Alignment	#251,0,-32767		10.7 Protection, Storage, and Cleaning	#253,0,-32767		10.8 Organization	#254,0,-32767			Labeling	#254,0,-32767			Storage	#255,0,-32767			Tools Organization	#255,0,-32767		Lab 10A The Quantum Eraser, Simple Version	#255,0,-32767		10A.1 Introduction	#255,0,-32767			Classical Polarization and Interference	#255,0,-32767			Quantum Polarization and Interference	#256,0,-32767		10A.2 Precision Optical Alignments	#256,0,-32767			Walking the Beam	#256,0,-32767			Aligning a Laser with the Grid of Holes	#256,0,-32767		10A.3 Mach-Zender Interferometer and the Quantum Eraser	#257,0,-32767			Insert Polarizing Beam Splitter Cube and Align the Beam with the Table	#257,0,-32767			Insert Mirrors 3 and 4, and Align the Beams	#257,0,-32767			Insert NPBS cube and Align the Beams with the Table	#258,0,-32767			Adding the Final Polarizer	#258,0,-32767			Understanding Interference, and the “Quantum Eraser”	#259,0,-32767	11 Laser Beams, Polarization, and Interference	#260,0,-32767		11.1 Introduction	#260,0,-32767			Learning Goals	#260,0,-32767			Additional Reading	#261,0,-32767			Pre-Lab Questions	#261,0,-32767		11.2 Polarization	#261,0,-32767		Lab 11A Polarization and Jones Vectors	#265,0,-32767			11A.1 Optical Activity	#265,0,-32767			11A.2 Quarter Wave Plates	#266,0,-32767			11A.3 Circular Polarizer	#266,0,-32767			11A.4 Elliptical Polarization	#267,0,-32767			11A.5 Brewster’s Angle and s- and p-Polarizations	#268,0,-32767		11.3 Gaussian Beams	#268,0,-32767		Lab 11B Laser Beams	#271,0,-32767			11B.1 Focusing a Beam and f-Number	#271,0,-32767			11B.2 The Airy Pattern and How to Clean Up a Beam	#272,0,-32767			11B.3 The Mathematical Structure of Gaussian Beams	#272,0,-32767	12 Vacuum	#276,0,-32767		12.1 Introduction	#276,0,-32767	13 Particle Detection	#280,0,-32767		13.1 Introduction to Radioactivity	#280,0,-32767			13.1.1 Introduction	#280,0,-32767			13.1.2 Activity	#281,0,-32767				Concept Tests	#283,0,-32767			13.1.3 Safety	#283,0,-32767		13.2 Detecting Radiation	#284,0,-32767			13.2.1 GM Tubes1,	#284,0,-32767				Concept Test	#286,0,-32767			13.2.2 Scintillator-Based Detectors1,9	#286,0,-32767				Concept Test	#287,0,-32767		13.3 Interactions with Matter	#288,0,-32767			Concept Test	#289,0,-32767		13.4 Counting Statistics	#289,0,-32767			Concept Test	#292,0,-32767		13.5 Homework Problems	#292,0,-32767		Lab 13A Experiment on Counting Statistics	#294,0,-32767			13A.1 Objectives	#294,0,-32767			13A.2 Safety	#295,0,-32767			13A.3 Experiments	#295,0,-32767				13A.3.1 Background Measurement	#295,0,-32767				13A.3.2 Poisson and Gaussian Distributions	#296,0,-32767				13A.3.3 Measurement of GM Tube Dead Time	#296,0,-32767				13A.3.4 Measuring Count Rate vs. Distance	#297,0,-32767				13A.3.5 Measuring Count Rate vs. Absorber Thickness	#297,0,-32767Part III Fields of Physics	#300,0,-32767	14 Development and Supervision of Independent Projects	#302,0,-32767		14.1 Introduction	#302,0,-32767		14.2 Project Proposal	#303,0,-32767			14.2.1 Research Goals	#303,0,-32767			14.2.2 Literature Review	#305,0,-32767			14.2.3 Work Plan	#305,0,-32767			14.2.4 Equipment and Infrastructure	#307,0,-32767			14.2.5 Summary	#309,0,-32767		14.3 Additional Elements to Consider for an Independent Project	#309,0,-32767			14.3.1 Navigating Group Dynamics	#309,0,-32767			14.3.2 Weekly Planning	#310,0,-32767			14.3.3 Troubleshooting	#311,0,-32767			14.3.4 Summary	#311,0,-32767	15 Condensed Matter Physics	#312,0,-32767		15.1 Introduction	#312,0,-32767		15.2 Equivalent Noise Bandwidth for a Measurement Chain	#313,0,-32767			Measuring B	#313,0,-32767				Method 1: Entire Chain	#313,0,-32767				Method 2: Values of f3dB for Each Filter or Effective Filter	#314,0,-32767		Lab 15A Quantitative Measurement of Johnson Noise	#314,0,-32767			Pre-Lab Question 15A.1	#315,0,-32767				Experimental Considerations	#317,0,-32767			Pre-Lab Question 15A.2: Why Should the Box Be Grounded?	#318,0,-32767			Pre-Lab Question 15A.3	#319,0,-32767				Uncertainty Analysis	#319,0,-32767	16 Biophysics	#320,0,-32767		16.1 Introduction	#320,0,-32767		Lab 16A Navigation in the Drosophila larva	#321,0,-32767			Chemical Sensing and Response	#321,0,-32767			Hardware Assembly	#322,0,-32767			Computer Software	#323,0,-32767			Odor Stimulus Delivery	#323,0,-32767			An Alternative Stimulus	#323,0,-32767			Fly Maintenance and Larva Selection	#324,0,-32767			Control Experiments	#324,0,-32767			Chemotaxis Experiments	#327,0,-32767		Lab 16B Biophysics: Modeling and Stimulating Behavior	#328,0,-32767			Random Walks	#329,0,-32767			Diffusion	#330,0,-32767			Two-Dimensional Random Walks	#331,0,-32767			Simulated Control Experiments	#332,0,-32767			Simulated Chemotaxis: Elements of Navigation Strategy	#335,0,-32767		Lab 16C Biomechanics: Modeling Physical Actions	#336,0,-32767	17 Non-Linear, Granular, and Fluid Physics	#340,0,-32767		17.1 Introduction	#341,0,-32767			Further Reading	#342,0,-32767		Lab 17A: Drop Pinch-Off 	#342,0,-32767			Introduction	#342,0,-32767			Objectives Shared with Other Areas of Experimental Physics	#342,0,-32767			Goals of This Experiment	#342,0,-32767			Time Requirements	#343,0,-32767			Safety Precautions	#343,0,-32767			Readings	#343,0,-32767			Suggested Additional References	#343,0,-32767			Introduction to Fluid Dynamics	#343,0,-32767				Exercise	#344,0,-32767			Surface Tension	#344,0,-32767				Exercises	#344,0,-32767			A Simple Model of Drop Pinch-Off	#345,0,-32767				Exercises	#345,0,-32767			Polymers and the Maxwell Model	#346,0,-32767				Exercises	#347,0,-32767			Part I: Low-Viscosity Newtonian Pinch-Off	#347,0,-32767				The Trigger and Strobe	#348,0,-32767				Preparing the Newtonian Fluid