Experimental Aerodynamics: An Introductory Guide

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Authors
Acronyms
1 The Experimental Approach in Aerodynamic Design
	1.1 Aerodynamics, What for?
	1.2 Review of the Theory
	1.3 Limitations and Constraints of Numerical Methods
	1.4 Some Constraints for Wind Tunnel Test
	1.5 Deformation of Models
	1.6 Industrial Aerodynamics Testing: Combining Tests and Numerical Simulation
	1.7 Flight Tests
		1.7.1 Flight Test Beds
		1.7.2 Catapulted Flight Test
		1.7.3 Aeroballistics Flight Test
	1.8 Simulated Altitude Test Cells
		1.8.1 Impact of Altitude
		1.8.2 How Does an Altitude Test Cell Work?
		1.8.3 Benefits of Simulated Altitude Tests in Addition to Ground
2 Wind Tunnels and Other Aerodynamic Test Facilities
	2.1 Background of Wind Tunnels
		2.1.1 Wind Tunnel Principle
		2.1.2 The Eiffel Type or Open Circuit Wind Tunnel
		2.1.3 The Prandtl Type or Closed Circuit Wind Tunnel
	2.2 From Wind Tunnel Test to Reality
	2.3 Reynolds Number Effect and Laminar to Turbulent Transition
	2.4 Dynamics Similarity and Dimensionless Parameters
	2.5 Constraints of Testing in a Wind Tunnel
		2.5.1 Effects of Blockage in the Test Section
		2.5.2 Model Installation and Different Kinds of Support
		2.5.3 Freestream Vortical and Acoustic Perturbations
	2.6 The Main Sections of a Wind Tunnel
	2.7 Design and Manufacturing of Wind Tunnel Models
3 Subsonic Wind Tunnels
	3.1 Subsonic Wind Tunnels for Aeronautics
		3.1.1 Historical Subsonic Wind Tunnels in France
		3.1.2 Circular to Octagonal Cross Section Wind Tunnel
		3.1.3 Low Reynolds Number Wind Tunnel
		3.1.4 Multiple Test Section Wind Tunnel
		3.1.5 Low Turbulence Research Wind Tunnel
		3.1.6 Pressurised Subsonic Wind Tunnel
		3.1.7 Large Research Wind Tunnels
	3.2 Special Purpose Wind Tunnels
		3.2.1 Vertical Wind Tunnel
		3.2.2 Climatic Wind Tunnels
		3.2.3 Icing Wind Tunnel
		3.2.4 Anechoic Chambers and Aeroacoustic Wind Tunnels
		3.2.5 Dual Purpose Aerodynamic and Acoustic Wind Tunnel
	3.3 Wind Tunnels for Ground Vehicles
		3.3.1 Specifications
		3.3.2 Long Test Section Wind Tunnel
		3.3.3 Wind Tunnels for Full Scale Automobile
	3.4 Water Tunnels
		3.4.1 General Description
		3.4.2 Low Speed Water Tunnel
		3.4.3 Hydrodynamic Channel for Polarographic Measurements
4 Transonic Wind Tunnels
	4.1 Definition of the Transonic Regime
	4.2 Blockage Reduction and Flow Un-Chocking
		4.2.1 Perforated or Slotted Walls
		4.2.2 Adaptive Walls
		4.2.3 Reflection of Disturbances
		4.2.4 Double Throat Diffuser
	4.3 Typical Transonic Wind Tunnels
		4.3.1 Very Large Transonic Wind Tunnel
		4.3.2 Transonic Wind Tunnel for Research
		4.3.3 Transonic-Supersonic Wind Tunnel
		4.3.4 A Cryogenic and Pressurised Wind Tunnel: The European Transonic Wind Tunnel
5 Supersonic Wind Tunnels
	5.1 Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
	5.2 Defining of the Contour of a Supersonic Nozzle
	5.3 Typical Supersonic Wind Tunnels
		5.3.1 Basic Research Supersonic Wind Tunnel
		5.3.2 Low Turbulence Supersonic Wind Tunnel
		5.3.3 Transonic/Supersonic Open Jet Facilities
		5.3.4 Large Variable Mach Number Wind Tunnel
		5.3.5 Blow Down Transonic/Supersonic Wind Tunnel
	5.4 Mach 6 Quiet Wind Tunnel
6 Hypersonic Wind Tunnels
	6.1 Types of Hypersonic Wind Tunnels
	6.2 Hypersonic “Cold” Wind Tunnels
	6.3 Hypersonic “Hot” or Hyper-enthalpic Wind Tunnels
		6.3.1 Hot Shot Wind Tunnels
		6.3.2 Shock Tubes and Shock Tunnels
		6.3.3 High Enthalpy Shock Tunnel
		6.3.4 Plasma Wind Tunnels
		6.3.5 Continuous Plasma Wind Tunnel
		6.3.6 Other Plasma Type Facilities
7 Flow Visualisation Techniques
	7.1 Earlier Contribution to Visualisation Techniques
	7.2 Surface Flow Visualisations
		7.2.1 Surface Oil Flow Visualisation
		7.2.2 Visualisation by Sublimating Product
	7.3 Visualisation in Water Tunnels
	7.4 Laser Tomoscopy or Laser Sheet Visualisation
	7.5 Visualisation by Optical Imaging
		7.5.1 Schlieren and Shadowgraph Techniques
		7.5.2 Interferometry
		7.5.3 Differential Interferometry
	7.6 Short Exposure Time Visualisation
	7.7 Visualisation by Induced Light Emission
		7.7.1 Glow Discharge Method
		7.7.2 Electron Beam-Induced Fluorescence (EBF)
8 Measurement of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
	8.1 The Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
	8.2 Aerodynamic Balances
		8.2.1 Forces and Strain Gauges
		8.2.2 Sting Type Force Balance
		8.2.3 Force Balance by Direct Force Measurements
		8.2.4 Balance for Ground Vehicle
	8.3 Drag Determination from Wake Survey
9 Characterisation of Flow Properties at the Surface
	9.1 The Action of a Fluid at the Wall
	9.2 Measurement of Pressure at the Wall
		9.2.1 Pressure Scanning Systems
		9.2.2 Types of Pressure Transducers
		9.2.3 Sensitivity and Response Time
	9.3 Pressure Sensitive Paint
		9.3.1 Principle and Composition of the Pressure Sensitive Paint
		9.3.2 Relation Between the Pressure and the Luminous Intensity
		9.3.3 Main Areas of Application of the PSP
		9.3.4 Developments in the Field of PSP
	9.4 Skin Friction Measurement
		9.4.1 Floating Element Balance
		9.4.2 Hot Film Surface Gauge
		9.4.3 Stanton and Preston Tubes
		9.4.4 Oil Film Interferometry
		9.4.5 Liquid Crystals Thermography
		9.4.6 Adjustment Based on the Logarithmic Law of Turbulent Boundary Layers
	9.5 Measurement of the Wall Heat Transfer
		9.5.1 Calorimetric Techniques
		9.5.2 Thermo-Sensitive Paints
		9.5.3 Infrared Thermography
	9.6 Measurement of Deformations of the Models
10 Intrusive Measurement Techniques
	10.1 Solid Probes: Benefits and Limitations
	10.2 Pressure Probes
		10.2.1 Measurement of Stagnation or Total Pressure, Pitot Probe
		10.2.2 Measurement Using Pitot-Static or Prandtl Probe
		10.2.3 Multi-holes Probe to Resolve the Direction of the Velocity Vector
	10.3 Temperature Probes
	10.4 Measurement Using Hot Wire and Hot Film Anemometry
		10.4.1 Basic Principles
		10.4.2 Modes of Hot-Wire Anemometry
		10.4.3 Types of Hot Wire Probes
		10.4.4 Applications
11 Non-intrusive Measurement Techniques
	11.1 Basic Principle of Non-intrusive Techniques
	11.2 Interferometry
		11.2.1 Light Interference and Refractive Index
		11.2.2 Mach-Zehnder Interferometry
		11.2.3 Holographic Interferometry
	11.3 Mechanism of Light Scattering
	11.4 Laser Doppler Velocimetry or Anemometry
		11.4.1 Basic Principles
		11.4.2 Signal Analysis
		11.4.3 Modes of Operation
		11.4.4 Multi-components Measurements
		11.4.5 Flow Seeding
	11.5 Doppler Global Velocimetry
	11.6 Particle Image Velocimetry
		11.6.1 Basic Principle of Planar PIV
		11.6.2 Image Processing
		11.6.3 Three Components Stereo PIV
		11.6.4 PIV Tomography or PIV 3D
		11.6.5 Particle Tracking Velocimetry
		11.6.6 Time Resolved Particle Image Velocimetry
		11.6.7 PIV Vs. LDV: A Brief Conclusion
12 Laser Spectroscopy and Electron Beam Excitation
	12.1 Basic Principles
	12.2 Laser Absorption Spectroscopy
	12.3 Rayleigh Scattering
	12.4 Raman Scattering
	12.5 Stimulated Raman Scattering
	12.6 Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF)
	12.7 Electron Beam-Induced Fluorescence (EBF)
	12.8 Electron Beam Induced Glow Discharge Measurements
	12.9 Detection of X-ray Emission by Electron Beam Excitation
13 Computer-Aided Wind Tunnel Test and Analysis
	13.1 Experimental Versus Numerical Analysis
	13.2 CFD for the Preparation of Wind Tunnel Tests
	13.3 Correction and Monitoring of Wind Tunnel Results by CFD
	13.4 Towards the Hybrid Wind Tunnel
	13.5 Reconstruction of Data
14 Prospects and Challenges for Aerodynamics
	14.1 Role of the Wind Tunnel in Design and Optimisation
	14.2 Flow Control
	14.3 Developments in Aeroacoustic Measurements
	14.4 Search for Novel Aircraft Architectures
	14.5 Supersonic and Hypersonic Flights
	14.6 Prospects for the Aerodynamic Design
	14.7 Aerodynamics and Teaching
Bibliography