Exercise, Respiratory and Environmental Physiology: A Tribute from the School of Milano

Foreword
	References
Acknowledgements
Contents
Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Before Margaria: Mosso and Herlitzka
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Some Considerations on Natural Philosophy
	1.3 The Transformation of Ancient Academies in Modern Universities
	1.4 From Natural Philosophy to Physiology
	1.5 An Instant Picture of Physiology in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century
	1.6 Angelo Mosso and his Pupils
	1.7 An Overview of Mosso´s Scientific Activity
	1.8 Angelo Mosso on Altitude
	1.9 Angelo Mosso and the Firefly
	1.10 Angelo Mosso on Circulation
	1.11 From Mosso to Herlitzka
	1.12 Amedeo Herlitzka
	1.13 Herlitzka´s Scientific Activity
	1.14 Herlitzka on the Energetics of Muscular Contraction
	References
Chapter 2: Margaria´s Revolution: A Novel Energetic View of Muscular Contraction
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Historical Notes
		2.2.1 Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century
		2.2.2 The Twentieth Century
		2.2.3 Rodolfo Margaria
		2.2.4 Margaria´s ``Revolution´´: The Alactic Oxygen Debt
	2.3 The Energetics of Muscular Contraction: A View from Milano
		2.3.1 The Thermodynamics of Muscle Contraction
		2.3.2 Entropy and Efficiency of Biological Processes
		2.3.3 Partial and Global Efficiencies: The ATP Cycle
		2.3.4 Contraction Efficiency, Speed of Shortening, and ATP Concentration
	2.4 Exercise at Maximal Power in Humans
	2.5 Conclusions: Of Animals and Cars
	Appendix: Margaria´s Tale of the ``Revolution´´ in Muscle Physiology in the 1930s
		Some Historical Notes
	References
Chapter 3: Margaria´s Concept of Oxygen Debt
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Metabolic Transients and Oxygen Debt ``Contraction´´ and ``Payment´´
		3.2.1 Aerobic Exercise
		3.2.2 Oxygen Consumption and Phosphocreatine Concentration at the Muscle Level: The P/O2 Ratio
		3.2.3 Oxygen Stores, Early Lactate and the Overall Oxygen Deficit
		3.2.4 Metabolic Transients: The Oxygen Debt ``Payment´´
		3.2.5 The Control of Muscle Oxygen Consumption
		3.2.6 The Slow Component
	3.3 The Lactate Mechanism
		3.3.1 Blood Lactate in Submaximal Exercises: The Anaerobic Threshold
		3.3.2 The Energy Equivalent of Lactate
		3.3.3 The Maximal Lactic Power
	3.4 The Anaerobic Alactic Energy Sources
	3.5 Conclusion: The General Equation of the Energetics of Muscular Exercise
	Appendix
		The Anaerobic Threshold
	References
Chapter 4: Further Developments on Exercise Transients: Los Angeles Versus Milano
	4.1 The Birth of a New Vision of Exercise Transients
	4.2 The Coexistence of Two Opposing Visions
	4.3 The Kinetics of Cardiac Output at Exercise Onset
	4.4 The Oxygen Uptake Kinetics in Hypoxia
	4.5 The Limits of Muscle Oxygen Consumption Kinetics
	4.6 On the Correspondence Between Muscle Oxygen Consumption and Lung Oxygen Uptake Kinetics
	4.7 The Effect of Priming Exercise
	4.8 Further Reflexions on the Slow Component
	4.9 The Problem of Gas Flow Analysis on a Breath-by-Breath Basis
	4.10 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 5: The Energetics and Biomechanics of Walking and Running
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 The Founders
	5.3 Definitions and General Concepts
	5.4 The Energy Cost of Walking and Running
		5.4.1 The Effect of the Incline
		5.4.2 Effects of the Terrain
		5.4.3 Pathologies of Locomotion
		5.4.4 The Effect of Body Mass and Age
	5.5 The Biomechanics of Walking and Running
		5.5.1 Definitions; Efficiency of Locomotion, Internal Work and External Work
		5.5.2 Walking and Running on Earth
	5.6 The Spontaneous Transition between Walking and Running
	5.7 Sprint Running and the Role of Acceleration
	5.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6: Cycling, Swimming and Other Forms of Locomotion on Land and in Water
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 A Historical Note
	6.3 Cycling
		6.3.1 Mechanical Work and Energy Cost
		6.3.2 Mechanical Efficiency
		6.3.3 The Rolling Resistance
		6.3.4 The Aerodynamic Resistance
		6.3.5 Of Shape and Size
		6.3.6 Cycling at Altitude
		6.3.7 The ``One Hour Record´´ for Unaccompanied Cycling
		6.3.8 Cycling Uphill or Downhill
		6.3.9 Metabolic Power and Body Mass
	6.4 Cross-Country Skiing
	6.5 The Energetics of Locomotion in Water: Introductory Remarks
	6.6 Energetics and Biomechanics of Swimming
		6.6.1 Technical Skill
		6.6.2 Swimming Style
		6.6.3 Of Women and Men
		6.6.4 The Biomechanics of Swimming: Drag and Efficiency
		6.6.5 Propelling Efficiency
	6.7 Energetics and Biomechanics of Assisted Locomotion in Water
		6.7.1 The Energy Cost
		6.7.2 The Hydrodynamic Resistance
		6.7.3 Efficiency
	6.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7: Maximal Oxygen Consumption
	7.1 The Early History of Maximal Oxygen Consumption
	7.2 The Unifactorial Vision of Maximal Oxygen Consumption Limitation
	7.3 The Oxygen Cascade and the Origin of Multifactorial Models
	7.4 Introducing the Multifactorial Models
	7.5 An Analysis of di Prampero´s Model
	7.6 Experimental Testing of di Prampero´s Model
	7.7 An Analysis of Wagner´s Model
	7.8 Experimental Testing of Wagner´s Model
	7.9 A Critical Comparison of the Multifactorial Models
	7.10 Of Maximal Oxygen Consumption in Hypoxia
	7.11 Of Maximal Oxygen Consumption at the End of Bed Rest
	7.12 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 8: Respiratory Mechanics
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 The Link of Respiratory Physiology to Muscle Energetics
	8.3 Pressure, Volumes, and Mechanical Stability of the Alveoli
	8.4 The Function of the Respiratory Muscles
	8.5 The Pressure Surrounding the Lung: Pleural Space Mechanics, Fluid Dynamics, and Lubrication
	8.6 Mechanism of Action of Pleural Lymphatics
	8.7 The Effect of Gravity on the Respiratory Function
	8.8 Underwater Respiratory Physiology
	8.9 Mechanical Ventilation
	8.10 Test of Pulmonary Function
		8.10.1 The Efficiency of the Respiratory Action
		8.10.2 Flow Limitation
	References
Chapter 9: The Air-Blood Barrier
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Microvascular Fluid Exchanges in the Healthy Lung
	9.3 Pathophysiology of Lung Edema
	9.4 Diffusion-Transport of Oxygen in the Lung
		9.4.1 Inter-Individual Differences in Air-Blood Barrier Phenotype
		9.4.2 Modeling the Alveolar-Capillary Equilibration
		9.4.3 Alveolar Phenotype and Proneness to Develop Lung Edema
	9.5 Fetal and Neonatal Respiration Physiology
	9.6 The Air-Blood Barrier as Interface
		9.6.1 Pollutants and Respiratory Reflexes
		9.6.2 Drug Delivery Via Nanoparticles
	References
Chapter 10: A School Goes to Altitude
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 The Kanjut-Sar Expedition
	10.3 The Italian Expedition to Mount Everest
		10.3.1 The Expedition
		10.3.2 Paolo Cerretelli at the Expedition
		10.3.3 Limiting Factors to Oxygen Transport on Mount Everest
		10.3.4 Critique of a Paper
		10.3.5 The Consequences of a Paper
	10.4 Messner on Top of Mount Everest Without Oxygen Bottles
	10.5 The Everest Pyramid
		10.5.1 The Lactate Paradox
		10.5.2 Effects of the Altitude History of Himalayan Ethnic Groups
		10.5.3 The Links Between Energy Metabolism and Muscle Molecular Physiology
	10.6 The Lung as a Gas Exchanger
	10.7 Lung Fluid Balance from Normal to the Development of Edema
	10.8 The Air-Blood Barrier
		10.8.1 Inter-individual Differences in Air-Blood Barrier Phenotype
		10.8.2 Comparing Lung Diffusion in Hypoxia and at Sea Level
		10.8.3 Effect of Work and Hypoxia on Alveolar-Capillary Volume
		10.8.4 Modeling the Alveolar-Capillary Equilibration
	10.9 Lung Water Balance and Phenotype
	10.10 Diffusion and Perfusion Limitation in the Air-Blood Barrier
	10.11 Further Considerations on  Limitation at Altitude
	10.12 An Unsettled Scientific Controversy
	10.13 The Harness Hang Syndrome
	10.14 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 11: A School Goes into Space
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 A Short Summary of Space Exploration
	11.3 The Early Studies
	11.4 Walking on the Moon or on Other Celestial Bodies
	11.5 The School of Milano Enters the Microgravity Game
	11.6 Maximal Explosive Power in Microgravity
	11.7 Cardiovascular Deconditioning
	11.8 The Twin Bike System
	11.9 Artificial Gravity on the Moon or Mars
	11.10 Mechanical Efficiency and Internal Power During Cycling
	11.11 Cardiovascular Response to Exercise on Outer Planets
	11.12 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12: A School Goes into Depth
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Alveolar Gas Composition During Breath-Holding
	12.3 The Korean Diving Women
	12.4 The School of Milano Enters the Game
	12.5 Gas Exchange and Energy Expenditure During Diving
	12.6 The Concept of Diving Response
	12.7 Respiratory Adaptation to Breath-Hold Diving
	12.8 Of the Maximal Diving Depth
	12.9 Lung Volumes of Elite Breath-Hold Divers
	12.10 Dynamics of Cardiovascular Responses to Dry Breath-Holding
	12.11 Conclusions: How Buffalo Influenced Milano
	References