Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Part 1: Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology
	1. The Scientific Movements Leading to Evolutionary Psychology
		Landmarks in the History of Evolutionary Thinking
			Evolution before Darwin
			Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
			Darwin’s Theory of Sexual Selection
			The Role of Natural Selection and Sexual Selection in Evolutionary Theory
			The Modern Synthesis: Genes and Particulate Inheritance
			The Ethology Movement
			The Inclusive Fitness Revolution
			Clarifying Adaptation and Natural Selection
			Trivers’s Seminal Theories
			The Sociobiology Controversy
		Common Misunderstandings about Evolutionary Theory
			Misunderstanding 1: Human Behavior Is Genetically Determined
			Misunderstanding 2: If It’s Evolutionary, We Cannot Change It
			Misunderstanding 3: Current Mechanisms Are Optimally Designed
		Milestones in the Origins of Modern Humans
		Landmarks in the Field of Psychology
		Box 1.1: Out of Africa versus Multiregional Origins: The Origins of Modern Humans
			Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
			William James and the Psychology of Instincts
			The Rise of Behaviorism
			The Astonishing Discoveries of Cultural Variability
			The Garcia Effect, Prepared Fears, and the Decline of Radical Behaviorism
			Peering into the Black Box: The Cognitive Revolution
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
	2. The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology
		The Origins of Human Nature
			Three Theories of the Origins of Complex Adaptive Mechanisms
			The Three Products of Evolution
			Levels of Evolutionary Analysis in Evolutionary Psychology
		The Core of Human Nature: Fundamentals of Evolved Psychological Mechanisms
			All Species Have a Nature
			Definition of an Evolved Psychological Mechanism
			Important Properties of Evolved Psychological Mechanisms
			Learning, Culture, and Evolved Psychological Mechanisms
		Methods for Testing Evolutionary Hypotheses
			Comparing Different Species
			Cross-Cultural Methods
			Physiological and Brain Imaging Methods
			Genetic Methods
			Comparing Males and Females
			Comparing Individuals within a Species
			Comparing the Same Individuals in Different Contexts
			Experimental Methods
		Sources of Data for Testing Evolutionary Hypotheses
			Archeological Records
			Data from Hunter-Gatherer Societies
			Observations
			Self-Reports
			Life-History Data and Public Records
			Human Products
			Transcending the Limitations of Single Data Sources
		Identifying Adaptive Problems
			Guidance from Modern Evolutionary Theory
			Guidance from Knowledge of Universal Human Structures
			Guidance from Traditional Societies
			Guidance from Paleoarcheology and Paleoanthropology
			Guidance from Current Mechanisms
			Guidance from Task Analysis
			Organization of Adaptive Problems
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
Part 2: Problems of Survival
	3. Combating the Hostile Forces of Nature
		Food Acquisition and Selection
			Social and Cultural Aspects of Food
			Food Preferences
			Disgust: The Disease-Avoidance Hypothesis
			Sickness in Pregnant Women: The Embryo Protection Hypothesis
			Fire and Cooking
			Why Humans Like Spices: The Antimicrobial Hypothesis
			Why Humans Like to Drink Alcohol: An Evolutionary Hangover?
			The Hunting Hypothesis
			The Gathering Hypothesis
			Comparing the Hunting and Gathering Hypotheses
			Adaptations to Gathering and Hunting: Sex Differences in Specific Spatial Abilities
		Finding a Place to Live: Shelter and Landscape
Preferences
			The Savanna Hypothesis
		Combating Predators and Other Environmental Dangers: Fears, Phobias, Anxieties, and Adaptive Biases
			Most Common Human Fears
			Children’s Antipredator Adaptations
		Box 3.1: Evolved Navigation Theory and the Descent Illusion
			Darwinian Medicine: Combating Disease
		Why Do People Die?
			The Theory of Senescence
			The Puzzle of Suicide
			Homicide
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
Part 3: Challenges of Sex and Mating
	4. Women’s Long-Term Mating Strategies
		Theoretical Background for the Evolution of Mate Preferences
			Parental Investment and Sexual Selection
			Mate Preferences as Evolved Psychological Mechanisms
		The Content of Women’s Mate Preferences
			Preference for Economic Resources
			Preference for Good Financial Prospects
			Preference for High Social Status
			Preference for Somewhat Older Men
			Preference for Ambition and Industriousness
			Preference for Dependability and Stability
			Preference for Height and Athletic Prowess
			Preference for Good Health: Symmetry and Masculinity
			Love and Commitment
			Preference for Willingness to Invest in Children
			Preference for Similarity
			Additional Mate Preferences: Kindness, Humor, Incest Avoidance, and Voice
		Context Effects on Women’s Mate Preferences
			Effects of Women’s Personal Resources on Mate Preferences
			The Mere Presence of Attractive Others: Mate Copying
			Effects of Temporal Context on Women’s Mate Preferences
			Effects of Women’s Mate Value on Mate Preferences
		How Women’s Mate Preferences Affect Actual Mating Behavior
			Women’s Responses to Men’s Personal Ads
			Women’s Marriages to Men High in Occupational Status
			Women’s Marriages to Men Who Are Older
			Effects of Women’s Preferences on Men’s Behavior
		Summary
		Box 4.1: What about Lesbian Sexual Orientation?
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
	5. Men’s Long-Term Mating Strategies
		Theoretical Background for the Evolution of Men’s Mate Preferences
			Why Men Might Benefit from Commitment and Marriage
			The Problem of Assessing a Woman’s Fertility or Reproductive Value
		The Content of Men’s Mate Preferences
			Preference for Youth
			Evolved Standards of Physical Beauty
			Body Fat, Waist-to-Hip Ratio, and Body Mass Index
			Sex Differences in the Importance of Physical Appearance
			Do Men Have a Preference for Ovulating Women?
			Solutions to the Problem of Paternity Uncertainty
		Box 5.1: Homosexual Orientation: An Evolutionary Puzzle
		Context Effects on Men’s Mating Behavior
			Men in Positions of Power
			Contrast Effects from Viewing Attractive Models
			Testosterone and Men’s Mating Strategies
			The Necessities and Luxuries of Mate Preferences
		Effect of Men’s Preferences on Actual Mating Behavior
			Men’s Responses to Women’s Personal Ads
			Marital Decisions and Reproductive Outcomes
			Effect of Men’s Preferences on Attention, Vocalization, Tips, and Engagement Rings
			Effect of Men’s Mate Preferences on Women’s Competition Tactics
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
	6. Short-Term Sexual Strategies
		Theories of Men’s Short-Term Mating
			Adaptive Benefits for Men of Short-Term Mating
			Potential Costs of Short-Term Mating for Men
			Adaptive Problems Men Must Solve When Pursuing Short-Term Mating
		Box 6.1: Functions versus Beneficial Effects of Short-Term Mating
		Evidence for an Evolved Short-Term Mating Psychology
			Physiological Evidence for Short-Term Mating
			Psychological Evidence for Short-Term Mating
			Behavioral Evidence of Short-Term Mating
		Women’s Short-Term Mating
			Evidence for Women’s Short-Term Mating
			Hypotheses about the Adaptive Benefits to Women of Short-Term Mating
			Costs to Women of Short-Term Mating
			Empirical Tests of Hypothesized Benefits to Women
		Context Effects on Short-Term Mating
			Individual Differences in Short-Term Mating
			Other Contexts Likely to Affect Short-Term Mating
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
Part 4: Challenges of Parenting and Kinship
	7. Problems of Parenting
		Why Do Mothers Provide More Parental Care Than Fathers?
			The Paternity Uncertainty Hypothesis
			The Mating Opportunity Cost Hypothesis
		An Evolutionary Perspective on Parental Care
			Genetic Relatedness to Offspring
			Offspring’s Ability to Convert Parental Care into Reproductive Success
			Alternative Uses of Resources Available for Investment in Children
		The Theory of Parent–Offspring Conflict
			Mother–Offspring Conflict in Utero
			Mother-Child Conflict and Sibling Relatedness
			Parent-Offspring Conflict over Mating
		Box 7.1: Killing Parents and the Asymmetry of Valuing Parents and Children
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
	8. Problems of Kinship
		Theory and Implications of Inclusive Fitness
			Hamilton’s Rule
			Theoretical Implications of Hamilton’s Rule
		Empirical Findings that Support the Implications of Inclusive Fitness Theory
			Alarm Calling in Ground Squirrels
			Kin Recognition and Kin Classifications in Humans
			Patterns of Helping in the Lives of Los Angeles Women
			Life-or-Death Helping among Humans
			Genetic Relatedness and Emotional Closeness: Is Blood Thicker Than Water?
			Vigilance over Kin’s Romantic Relationships
			Kinship and Stress
			Kinship and Survival
			Patterns of Inheritance—Who Leaves Wealth to Whom?
			Investment by Grandparents
		Box 8.1: Investment by Aunts, Uncles, and Cousins
			A Broader Perspective on the Evolution of the Family
			The Dark Side of Families
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
Part 5: Problems of Group Living
	9. Cooperative Alliances
		The Evolution of Cooperation
			The Problem of Altruism
		A Theory of Reciprocal Altruism
			Tit for Tat
		Box 9.1: Strategies for Promoting Cooperation
		Cooperation among Nonhumans
			Food Sharing in Vampire Bats
			Chimpanzee Politics
		Cooperation and Altruism among Humans
			Social Contract Theory
			Evidence for Cheater-Detection Adaptations
			Do People Remember Cheaters?
			The Detection of Prospective Altruists
			Indirect Reciprocity Theory
			Costly Signaling Theory
			The Psychology of Friendship
			Costs and Benefits of Friendship
			Cooperative Coalitions
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
	10. Aggression and Warfare
		Aggression as a Solution to Adaptive Problems
			Co-opt the Resources of Others
			Defend against Attack
			Inflict Costs on Intrasexual Rivals
			Negotiate Status and Power Hierarchies
			Deter Rivals from Future Aggression
			Deter Long-Term Mates from Sexual Infidelity
			The Context-Specificity of Aggression
		Why Are Men More Violently Aggressive than Women?
		Box 10.1: The Recalibration Theory of Anger
		Empirical Evidence for Distinct Adaptive Patterns of Aggression
			Evidence for Sex Differences in Same-Sex Aggression
			Contexts Triggering Men’s Aggression against Men
			Contexts Triggering Women’s Aggression against Women
			Contexts Triggering Men’s Aggression against Women
			Contexts Triggering Women’s Aggression against Men
			Warfare
		Box 10.2: Yanomamö Warfare
		Box 10.3: The Puzzle of Suicide Terrorism
			Do Humans Have Evolved Homicide Mechanisms?
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
	11. Conflict between the Sexes
		Strategic Interference Theory
		Conflict about the Occurrence and Timing of Sex
			Conflict over Sexual Access
		Sexual Aggression, Sexual Exploitation, and Women’s Coevolved Defenses
			Sexual Harassment
			Sexual Exploitation and Cues to Sexual Exploitability
			Sexual Aggressiveness
			Do Men Have Evolved Rape Adaptations?
			Individual Differences in Rape Proclivity
			Do Women Have Evolved Antirape Adaptations?
		Jealous Conflict
			Sex Differences in Jealousy
		From Vigilance to Violence: Tactics of Mate Retention
			Sex Differences in the Use of Mate-Retention Tactics
			Contexts Influencing the Intensity of Mate-Retention Tactics
			Violence toward Partners
		Conflict over Access to Resources
			Causes of Resource Inequality: Women’s Mate Preferences and Men’s Competitive Tactics
		Box 11.1: Are All Men United to Control Women?
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
	12. Status, Prestige, and Social Dominance
		The Emergence of Dominance Hierarchies
		Dominance and Status in Nonhuman Animals
		Evolutionary Theories of Dominance, Prestige, and Status
			An Evolutionary Theory of Sex Differences in Status Striving
		Box 12.1: Tactics of Hierarchy Negotiation
			Dominance Theory
			Social Attention-Holding Theory
			Indicators of Dominance
		Box 12.2: Facial Dominance
			Self-Esteem as a Status-Tracking Mechanism
			Strategies of Submissiveness
		Summary
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
Part 6: An Integrated Psychological Science
	13. Toward a Unified Evolutionary Psychology
		Evolutionary Cognitive Psychology
			Attention and Memory
			Problem Solving: Heuristics, Biases, and Judgment under Uncertainty
			The Evolution of Language
			The Evolution of Extraordinary Human Intelligence
		Evolutionary Social Psychology
			Capitalizing on Evolutionary Theories about Social Phenomena
			The Evolution of Moral Emotions
			The Return of Group Selection as Multilevel Selection Theory
		Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
			Theory of Mind Mechanisms
			Life-History Strategies
		Evolutionary Personality Psychology
			Alternative Niche Picking or Strategic Specialization
			Adaptive Assessment of Heritable Qualities
			Frequency-Dependent Adaptive Strategies
		Evolutionary Clinical Psychology
			Causes of Mechanism Failure
			Evolutionary Insights into Problems Erroneously Thought to Be Dysfunctions
		Evolutionary Cultural Psychology
			Evoked Culture
			Transmitted Culture
			The Evolutionary Psychology of Religion
			The Evolution of Art, Fiction, Movies, and Music
		Toward a Unified Psychology
		Critical Thinking Questions
		Suggested Readings
Bibliography
Credits
Index