Eucalyptus: The Genus Eucalyptus (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles)

Cover......Page 1
ISBN    9780415278799......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Contents......Page 4
Contributors......Page 6
Preface to the series......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
Part 1: General aspects......Page 13
The discovery of the eucalypts......Page 14
The origins of Eucalyptus......Page 16
Classification in the genus Eucalyptus......Page 18
Habit......Page 21
The lignotuber......Page 23
Smooth bark......Page 24
Rough bark......Page 26
Seeds and germination......Page 28
Leaf form and coloredness......Page 29
Leaf venation......Page 30
Oil glands......Page 31
The eucalyptus oil industry in Australia......Page 33
Eucalyptus species used in oil production......Page 36
E. dives Schau. – Broad-leaved Peppermint......Page 37
E. globulus Labill. (four subspecies) – Southern Blue Gums......Page 38
E. radiata Sieber ex Spreng. (syn. E. australiana Baker & Smith, E. phellandra Baker & Smith) – Narrow-leaved Peppermint......Page 39
E. staigeriana F. Muell. ex Bailey – Lemon-scented Ironbark......Page 41
E. camaldulensis Dehnh. – River Red Gum......Page 42
E. cinerea F. Muell. ex Benth. – Argyle Apple......Page 43
E. olida Johnson & Hill......Page 44
References......Page 45
Environmental concerns about eucalyptus......Page 47
Forest hydrology myths......Page 48
Rainfall interception by eucalypts......Page 49
Transpiration from eucalypts......Page 50
Physiological and water use studies......Page 51
Water use studies......Page 53
Sustainable management systems......Page 54
Water use summary......Page 55
Theoretical considerations and observations......Page 56
Eucalypts and erosion......Page 57
Conclusions......Page 58
References......Page 59
Introduction......Page 63
Size and location of main plantings......Page 64
Why plant eucalypts?......Page 65
People’s Republic of China......Page 66
India......Page 67
Species selection and growth prediction......Page 68
Climatic mapping programs......Page 69
Relationship between site and environmental factors......Page 71
Other predictive models......Page 72
Nutritional factors and the growth of eucalypts......Page 73
Advantages of vegetative propagation......Page 75
Vegetative propagation by small-scale producers......Page 77
Coppice management......Page 78
References......Page 79
Introduction......Page 86
Breeding objectives......Page 87
Choice of base material......Page 88
Chemical forms......Page 89
Families......Page 91
Progeny......Page 92
Breeding system and inbreeding depression......Page 93
Genetic parameters......Page 95
Ease of vegetative propagation......Page 101
Selection criteria and selection indices......Page 102
Variation due to ontogeny, age of plant and phenology......Page 103
Seasonal variation......Page 104
Statistical analysis......Page 105
Improving oil traits......Page 106
Expected gain......Page 108
References......Page 109
Early investigations......Page 113
Sample preparation......Page 114
Analytical techniques......Page 115
Infraspecific variation and chemotaxonomy......Page 116
Cineole-rich oils......Page 117
Oils of potential commercial use......Page 119
Biogenesis of eucalyptus oil constituents......Page 121
Metabolism......Page 122
Non-volatile constituents......Page 123
References......Page 163
The distilling operation......Page 172
Conditions for distilling the oil......Page 173
Steam......Page 174
The transference of heat......Page 175
Relation between charge height and extraction time......Page 176
Comparison of species’ yields and extraction times......Page 177
The lag factor for Eucalyptus......Page 179
Internal reflux......Page 180
The hydrophylic effect......Page 181
Pilot still with small steam evaporator......Page 182
Water and steam distillation with under-charge kettle......Page 183
Direct steam distillation with a separate boiler......Page 184
Trailer stills......Page 185
Handling systems......Page 186
The condenser......Page 187
End-point indicator......Page 189
References......Page 191
Part 2: Cultivation and production of eucalypts around the world With special reference to the leaf oils......Page 192
Early research......Page 193
Oil-producing species......Page 194
Commercial production......Page 195
Early methods of production......Page 196
Modern methods of harvesting and production......Page 197
Cultivation for oil production......Page 201
Land preparation......Page 202
Pests and diseases......Page 203
Factors which affect biomass and oil yields......Page 204
Weather......Page 205
Further processing......Page 206
Standards......Page 207
Other oils......Page 208
Research and development......Page 209
Research needs......Page 210
References......Page 211
History of their introduction and cultivation......Page 212
Present day plantations......Page 213
Nursery techniques......Page 215
Establishment......Page 216
Management of coppice crops......Page 217
Pests and diseases......Page 218
Brief history of the industry......Page 219
Eucalyptus species used for oil production......Page 220
Distillation practice......Page 222
Industrial oils......Page 223
References......Page 224
Scale of plantings and end-use......Page 226
Eucalyptus oil production in Africa......Page 227
E. smithii......Page 228
Other cineole-rich species......Page 231
Industrial and perfumery oil species......Page 232
Seedling production......Page 233
Land preparation......Page 234
Weed control......Page 235
Fertilising......Page 236
Pests and diseases......Page 237
Eucalyptus snout beetle......Page 239
Botrytis cinerea......Page 240
Harvesting and transport......Page 241
Distillation......Page 242
Oil yields......Page 244
Future prospects for eucalyptus oil production in Africa......Page 245
References......Page 246
Introduction of eucalypts to Brazil and end use......Page 249
Eucalyptus oil production in Brazil......Page 250
Eucalyptus citriodora: a case study of its cultivation and distillation in Brazil......Page 251
Land preparation......Page 252
Maintenance......Page 253
Harvesting......Page 254
Distillation......Page 256
Chile......Page 258
Reference......Page 259
Historical aspects......Page 261
Present plantations......Page 262
Eucalyptus hybrid......Page 263
Other Eucalyptus species......Page 264
Insect pests......Page 265
Diseases......Page 266
E. globulus......Page 267
E. citriodora......Page 268
Eucalyptus hybrid......Page 269
Medicinal oil......Page 270
Rutin......Page 271
Current research and future research needs......Page 272
References......Page 273
Part 3: Biological and end-use aspects......Page 277
Bioactivity associated with the non-volatile constituents......Page 278
B-Diketones and polyphenols......Page 279
Macrocarpals......Page 281
Robustaol and robustadials......Page 283
Euglobals: analysis and structure elucidation......Page 284
Mass spectrometry......Page 285
Structures and the structural elucidation of new euglobals......Page 287
Biogenesis of euglobals......Page 290
Anti-inflammatory effects of euglobals......Page 291
Inhibitory effects on Epstein–Barr virus activation......Page 292
Anti-tumour promoting activity of euglobal-G1 and -III......Page 295
References......Page 296
Antimicrobial activity of eucalyptus leaf oils......Page 300
Organisms involved in food spoilage......Page 301
Plant protection......Page 303
Antibacterial activity......Page 304
Composition and structure–activity relationships......Page 307
Conclusions......Page 309
References......Page 310
Introduction......Page 313
Eucalyptus citriodora......Page 314
Introduction......Page 316
Effects on insect pests of cereals......Page 318
Effects on insect pests of grain legumes......Page 322
Effects on mites......Page 324
Conclusion......Page 325
Allelochemicals in E. citriodora......Page 326
Allelochemicals in other Eucalyptus species......Page 328
References......Page 330
Introduction......Page 333
Acylphloroglucinol–terpene adducts......Page 334
Ecological factors affecting the concentration of oils in Eucalyptus foliage......Page 336
Diet choice in vertebrate herbivores......Page 337
Bioassays with marsupials fed isolated essential oils......Page 339
Metabolic transformations of Eucalyptus essential oils by mammals......Page 342
Diet choice in insect grazers of Eucalyptus......Page 343
The role of terpene–acylphloroglucinol adducts in food choice of mammals and insects......Page 346
Efficacy of selecting high essential oil genotypes in conferring natural herbivore resistance on Eucalyptus plantations......Page 349
References......Page 350
Introduction......Page 354
Cineole-rich oils......Page 355
Research Institute for Fragrance Materials......Page 356
Insect repellents......Page 357
Medicinal uses......Page 358
Aromatherapy uses......Page 364
Typical formulations for personal care products......Page 365
Formulation 3 – Hair conditioning treatment with Eucalyptus and Mint......Page 369
Oral health care......Page 370
Legislation in Europe and the United States......Page 371
Selected bibliography......Page 372
Plant sources......Page 374
Present uses......Page 375
Possible future uses......Page 376
Industrial oils......Page 377
Introduction......Page 378
People’s Republic of China......Page 379
United States (consumption)......Page 380
European Union (consumption)......Page 383
Australia......Page 384
Africa......Page 385
South America......Page 386
Price trends......Page 388
Cineole-rich oils and eucalyptol......Page 389
The outlook......Page 390
References......Page 391
Developments in large-scale commercial extraction......Page 393
Small-scale laboratory extraction methods......Page 394
Solvent extraction methods......Page 395
Vacuum distillation......Page 397
Other methods......Page 398
Identification of essential oil constituents......Page 399
Essential oils......Page 400
Flavour, fragrance and medicinal use......Page 401
Use as a solvent/cleaning agent......Page 402
Chemical and microbiological transformations as a route to commercially useful products......Page 403
Other bioactive non-volatile compounds......Page 405
Concluding remarks......Page 407
References......Page 408
Appendices......Page 413
Appendix 1: Sources of eucalyptus seed......Page 414
Appendix 2: Estimates of eucalypt plantations worldwide......Page 415
References......Page 418
Appendix 3: Advice to a prospective new producer of eucalyptus oil or other leaf extractive1......Page 419
References......Page 420
Appendix 4: Composition of some commercially distilled eucalyptus oils......Page 421
Specifications of standards organisations......Page 423
Pharmacopoeia specifications......Page 424
Other oils......Page 426
References......Page 427
Legislation......Page 428
Packaging......Page 429
References......Page 430
Standards organisations......Page 431
Other organisations......Page 433