Essentials of Understanding Psychology

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright Page......Page 3
Dedication......Page 4
About the Author......Page 6
Preface......Page 24
Brief Contents......Page 8
Contents......Page 12
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Psychology......Page 53
MODULE 1 Psychologists at Work......Page 56
The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree......Page 57
Working at Psychology......Page 60
The Roots of Psychology......Page 66
Today’s Perspectives......Page 69
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Psychology Matters......Page 72
Psychology\'s Key Issues and Controversies......Page 73
Psychology\'s Future......Page 75
The Scientific Method......Page 78
Descriptive Research......Page 80
Experimental Research......Page 83
The Ethics of Research......Page 92
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Choosing Participants Who Represent the Scope of Human Behavior......Page 93
Should Animals Be Used in Research?......Page 94
Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias......Page 95
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically About Research......Page 96
MASTERING the difference between dependent and independent variables......Page 99
CHAPTER 2: Neuroscience and Behavior......Page 101
The Structure of the Neuron......Page 104
How Neurons Fire......Page 105
Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap......Page 107
Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers......Page 109
The Nervous System: Linking Neurons......Page 112
The Evolutionary Foundations of the Nervous System......Page 114
The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands......Page 117
Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain......Page 122
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: How Neuroscience Is Helping Patients with Brain Injuries\r......Page 124
The Central Core: Our “Old Brain”......Page 125
The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core......Page 126
The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain”......Page 127
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Sentence and Melody Generation......Page 129
Neuroplasticity and the Brain......Page 130
The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?......Page 131
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Human Diversity and the Brain......Page 132
The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres......Page 133
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Learning to Control Your Heart—and Mind—Through Biofeedback\r......Page 134
MASTERING the action potential......Page 137
CHAPTER 3: Sensation and Perception......Page 139
MODULE 8 Sensing the World Around Us\r......Page 142
Absolute Thresholds: Detecting What’s Out There......Page 143
Sensory Adaptation: Turning Down Our Responses......Page 144
MODULE 9 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye\r......Page 146
Illuminating the Structure of the Eye......Page 147
Color Vision and Color Blindness: The 7-Million-Color Spectrum......Page 151
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Vision Revision: Giving Sight Back to the Blind......Page 154
Sensing Sound......Page 156
Smell and Taste......Page 159
The Skin Senses: Touch, Pressure, Temperature, and Pain......Page 162
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Managing Pain......Page 164
How Our Senses Interact......Page 165
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Sensory Processing......Page 166
The Gestalt Laws of Organization......Page 168
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing......Page 169
Perceptual Constancy......Page 171
Depth Perception: Translating 2-D to 3-D......Page 172
Perceptual Illusions: The Deceptions of Perceptions......Page 173
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Culture and Perception......Page 175
MASTERING the difference between sensation and perception......Page 179
CHAPTER 4: States of Consciousness......Page 181
MODULE 12 Sleep and Dreams\r......Page 184
The Stages of Sleep......Page 185
REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep......Page 186
Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is Necessary?......Page 187
The Function and Meaning of Dreaming......Page 188
Circadian Rhythms: Life Cycles......Page 191
Daydreams: Dreams Without Sleep......Page 192
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Sleeping Better......Page 193
Hypnosis: A Trance-Forming Experience?......Page 196
Meditation: Regulating Our Own State of Consciousness......Page 198
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Long-Term Effects of Meditation......Page 199
MODULE 14 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness......Page 202
Stimulants: Drug Highs......Page 204
Depressants: Drug Lows......Page 207
Narcotics: Relieving Pain and Anxiety......Page 210
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Identifying Drug and Alcohol Problems\r......Page 212
CHAPTER 5: Learning......Page 217
MODULE 15 Classical Conditioning\r......Page 220
The Basics of Classical Conditioning......Page 221
Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior......Page 223
Extinction......Page 224
Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions......Page 225
Thorndike’s Law of Effect......Page 228
The Basics of Operant Conditioning......Page 229
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Gaming the Job: Motivating Workers Through Operant Conditioning\r......Page 236
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Using Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification\r......Page 239
Latent Learning......Page 242
Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation......Page 244
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Behaviors and Brain Activation......Page 245
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Does Culture Influence How We Learn?......Page 246
MASTERING the distinction between reinforcement and punishment......Page 251
CHAPTER 6: Memory......Page 253
MODULE 18 The Foundations of Memory\r......Page 256
Sensory Memory......Page 257
Short-Term Memory......Page 258
Long-Term Memory......Page 261
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Size of the Hippocampus in Taxi Drivers......Page 266
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Dulling the Edges of Painful Memory......Page 267
Retrieval Cues......Page 270
Levels of Processing......Page 271
Explicit and Implicit Memory......Page 272
Flashbulb Memories......Page 273
Constructive Processes in Memory: Rebuilding the Past......Page 274
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Are There Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory?......Page 277
MODULE 20 Forgetting: When Memory Fails\r......Page 280
Why We Forget......Page 281
Proactive and Retroactive Interference: The Before and After of Forgetting......Page 282
Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting......Page 283
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Alzheimer\'s Disease: Changes in the Brain......Page 284
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Improving Your Memory......Page 285
CHAPTER 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence......Page 289
Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye......Page 292
Concepts: Categorizing the World......Page 293
Algorithms and Heuristics......Page 294
Solving Problems......Page 295
Creativity and Problem Solving......Page 303
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Thinking Critically and Creatively\r......Page 305
Grammar: Language’s Language......Page 308
Language Development: Developing a Way with Words......Page 309
Understanding Language Acquisition: Identifying the Roots of Language......Page 310
The Influence of Language on Thinking: Do Eskimos Have More Words for Snow Than Texans Do?......Page 312
Do Animals Use Language?......Page 313
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Teaching with Linguistic Variety: Bilingual Education......Page 314
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Brain Functioning in Bilingual Speakers......Page 315
MODULE 23 Intelligence\r......Page 318
Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?......Page 319
Assessing Intelligence......Page 324
Variations in Intellectual Ability......Page 330
Group Differences in Intelligence: Genetic and Environmental Determinants......Page 331
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: The Relative Influence of Genetics and Environment: Nature, Nurture, and IQ\r......Page 332
CHAPTER 8: Motivation and Emotion......Page 337
Instinct Approaches: Born to Be Motivated......Page 340
Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Needs......Page 341
Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation......Page 343
Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering Motivational Needs......Page 344
Applying the Different Approaches to Motivation......Page 345
The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating......Page 348
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Exercising to Excess......Page 352
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Cognitive Processing in Anorexic Patients......Page 353
Sexual Motivation......Page 354
The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power......Page 360
MODULE 26 Understanding Emotional Experiences\r......Page 364
Determining the Range of Emotions: Labeling Our Feelings......Page 365
The Roots of Emotions......Page 366
Making Sense of the Multiple Perspectives of Emotion......Page 370
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly?......Page 371
CHAPTER 9: Development......Page 375
MODULE 27 Nature and Nurture, and Prenatal Development\r......Page 378
Developmental Research Techniques......Page 380
Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth......Page 381
The Extraordinary Newborn......Page 390
The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood......Page 393
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: The Sting and Stigma of Peer Rejection......Page 399
Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent......Page 410
Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong......Page 412
Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World......Page 414
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Rites of Passage: Coming of Age Around the World......Page 418
Physical Development: The Peak of Health......Page 420
Social Development: Working at Life......Page 421
Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties......Page 422
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old......Page 423
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Adjusting to Death......Page 428
CHAPTER 10: Personality......Page 431
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Mapping the Unconscious Mind......Page 434
The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts: Building on Freud......Page 440
Trait Approaches: Placing Labels on Personality......Page 444
Learning Approaches: We Are What We’ve Learned......Page 447
Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Are We Born with Personality?......Page 450
Humanistic Approaches: The Uniqueness of You......Page 452
Comparing Approaches to Personality......Page 454
MODULE 33 Assessing Personality: Determining What Makes Us Distinctive\r......Page 456
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Should Race and Ethnicity Be Used to Establish Norms?......Page 457
Self-Report Measures of Personality......Page 458
Projective Methods......Page 460
Behavioral Assessment......Page 461
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Assessing Personality Assessments......Page 462
CHAPTER 11: Health Psychology: Stress, Coping, and Well-Being......Page 465
Stress: Reacting to Threat and Challenge......Page 468
Coping with Stress......Page 475
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Stress and Social Support......Page 477
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Effective Coping Strategies......Page 478
The As, Bs, and Ds of Coronary Heart Disease......Page 480
Psychological Aspects of Cancer......Page 481
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Scared to Death: The Link Between Stress and Coronary Heart Disease......Page 482
Smoking......Page 484
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Hucksters of Death: Promoting Smoking Throughout the World......Page 485
Following Medical Advice......Page 488
Well-Being and Happiness......Page 491
CHAPTER 12: Psychological Disorders......Page 495
Defining Abnormality......Page 498
Perspectives on Abnormality: From Superstition to Science......Page 500
Classifying Abnormal Behavior: The ABCs of DSM......Page 504
Anxiety Disorders......Page 508
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Panic Disorder and Brain Activation......Page 510
Dissociative Disorders......Page 513
Mood Disorders......Page 515
Schizophrenia......Page 519
NEUROSCIENCE IN YOUR LIFE: Brain Changes with Schizophrenia......Page 523
Personality Disorders......Page 524
Childhood Disorders......Page 525
Other Disorders......Page 526
MODULE 39 Psychological Disorders in Perspective......Page 528
The Social and Cultural Context of Psychological Disorders......Page 529
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: DSM and Culture—and the Culture of DSM......Page 530
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Deciding When You Need Help......Page 531
CHAPTER 13: Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 535
MODULE 40 Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Cognitive Approaches to Treatment......Page 538
Psychodynamic Approaches to Therapy......Page 539
Behavioral Approaches to Therapy......Page 541
Cognitive Approaches to Therapy......Page 545
Humanistic Therapy......Page 550
Interpersonal Therapy......Page 551
Group Therapy, Family Therapy, and Self-Help Groups......Page 552
Evaluating Psychotherapy: Does Therapy Work?......Page 553
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Racial and Ethnic Factors in Treatment: Should Therapists Be Color-Blind?......Page 555
Drug Therapy......Page 558
Psychosurgery......Page 561
Biomedical Therapies in Perspective......Page 562
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Prescription: Stay Involved with Work and Family......Page 563
Community Psychology: Focus on Prevention......Page 564
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Choosing the Right Therapist......Page 565
CHAPTER 14: Social Psychology......Page 569
Persuasion: Changing Attitudes......Page 572
Social Cognition: Understanding Others......Page 576
EXPLORING DIVERSITY: Attributions in a Cultural Context: How Fundamental Is the Fundamental Attribution Error?\r......Page 580
Conformity: Following What Others Do......Page 582
Compliance: Submitting to Direct Social Pressure......Page 585
Obedience: Following Direct Orders......Page 587
MODULE 45 Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 590
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Decreasing the Damage of Negative Stereotypes......Page 591
The Foundations of Prejudice......Page 592
Measuring Prejudice and Discrimination: The Implicit Personality Test......Page 593
Reducing the Consequences of Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 594
Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and the Development of Relationships......Page 596
Aggression and Prosocial Behavior: Hurting and Helping Others......Page 598
Helping Others: The Brighter Side of Human Nature......Page 602
BECOMING AN INFORMED CONSUMER OF PSYCHOLOGY: Dealing Effectively with Anger......Page 604
MASTERING attitude change......Page 607
Glossary......Page 610
References......Page 619
Credits......Page 661
Name Index......Page 665
Subject Index......Page 676