Essentials of understanding psychology

Cover......Page 1
Essentials of Understanding Psychology......Page 2
About the Authors......Page 5
Brief Contents......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 16
Acknowledgments......Page 24
Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology......Page 25
  The Science of Psychology......Page 27
  Working at Psychology......Page 28
  PsychWork: Licensed Social Worker......Page 30
  The Roots Of Psychology......Page 32
  Historical Perspectives: What Has Stood the Test of Time?......Page 35
  The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology's Family Tree......Page 38
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Psychology Matters......Page 40
  Psychology's Future: Expanding Psychology's Frontiers......Page 42
  The Scientific Method......Page 44
  Psychological Research......Page 46
  Descriptive Research......Page 47
  Experimental Research......Page 50
  The Ethics of Research......Page 57
  Should Animals be Used in Research?......Page 58
  Threats to Experiment Validity: Experimenter and Participant Expectations......Page 59
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Thinking Critically About Research......Page 60
Chapter 2 Neuroscience and Behaviour......Page 65
  The Structure of the Neuron......Page 67
  How Neurons Fire......Page 69
  Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap......Page 71
  Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers......Page 73
  Studying the Brain's Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain......Page 75
  The Midbrain......Page 77
  The Forebrain......Page 78
  Neuroplasticity and the Brain......Page 82
  The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One?......Page 83
  The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres......Page 84
  Exploring Diversity: Sex and the Brain......Page 85
  The Nervous System......Page 87
  The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands......Page 92
Chapter 3 Sensation and Perception......Page 97
 Module 8 Sensing the World Around Us......Page 99
  Absolute Thresholds: Detecting What's Out There......Page 100
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Driven to Distraction......Page 101
  Sensory Adaptation: Turning Down Our Responses......Page 102
 Module 9 Vision: Shedding Light on the Eye......Page 104
  Illuminating the Structure of the Eye......Page 105
  Colour Vision and Colour Blindness: The Seven-Million-Colour Spectrum......Page 109
  Sensing Sound......Page 112
  Smell and Taste......Page 116
  The Skin Senses: Touch, Pressure, Temperature, and Pain......Page 119
 Module 11 Perceptual Organization: Constructing Our View of the World......Page 122
  The Gestalt Laws of Organization......Page 123
  Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing......Page 124
  Perceptual Constancy......Page 125
  Depth Perception: Translating 2-D to 3-D......Page 126
  Perceptual Illusions: The Deceptions of Perceptions......Page 127
  Exploring Diversity: Culture and Perception......Page 130
Chapter 4 States of Consciousness......Page 135
  The Stages of Sleep......Page 137
  REM Sleep: The Paradox of Sleep......Page 139
  Why Do We Sleep, and How Much Sleep Is Necessary?......Page 140
  The Function and Meaning of Dreaming......Page 142
  Sleep Disturbances: Slumbering Problems......Page 144
  PsychWork: Sleep Technologist......Page 145
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Sleep Better......Page 146
  Hypnosis: A Trance-Forming Experience?......Page 148
  Meditation: Regulating Our Own State of Consciousness......Page 150
  Exploring Diversity: Cross-Cultural Routes to Altered States of Consciousness......Page 151
 Module 14 Drug Use: The Highs and Lows of Consciousness......Page 152
  Stimulants: Drug Highs......Page 154
  Depressants: Drug Lows......Page 158
  Narcotics: Relieving Pain and Anxiety......Page 160
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Identifying Drug and Alcohol Problems......Page 162
Chapter 5 Learning......Page 165
 Module 15 Classical Conditioning......Page 167
  The Basics of Classical Conditioning......Page 168
  Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behaviour......Page 170
  Extinction......Page 171
  Generalization and Discrimination......Page 172
  Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions......Page 173
  Thorndike's Law of Effect......Page 175
  The Basics of Operant Conditioning......Page 176
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: A Nose for Danger: Saving Lives by  Sniffing Out Land Mines......Page 178
  Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment......Page 179
  The Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement  Beats Punishment......Page 181
  Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life's Rewards......Page 182
  Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning......Page 184
  Biological Constraints on Learning: You CanÕt Teach an Old Dog Just Any Trick......Page 185
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Using Behaviour Analysis and  Behaviour Modification......Page 187
  Latent Learning......Page 189
  Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation......Page 191
  Violence In Television and Video Games: Does the MediaÕs Message Matter?......Page 192
  Exploring Diversity: Does Culture Influence How We Learn?......Page 193
Chapter 6 Memory......Page 197
 Module 18 The Foundations of Memory......Page 199
  Short-Term Memory......Page 201
  Long-Term Memory......Page 204
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Enhancing Memory: Are We on the Road to "Cosmetic Neurology"?......Page 209
  Retrieval Cues......Page 211
  Levels of Processing......Page 212
  Explicit and Implicit Memory......Page 213
  Flashbulb Memories......Page 214
  Constructive Processes in Memory: Rebuilding the Past......Page 215
  Exploring Diversity: Are There Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory?......Page 219
  Why We Forget......Page 221
  Proactive and Retroactive Interference: The Before and After  of Forgetting......Page 224
  Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting......Page 225
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Improving Your Memory......Page 226
Chapter 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence......Page 231
  Mental Images: Examining the Mind's Eye......Page 233
  Concepts: Categorizing the World......Page 234
  Algorithms and Heuristics......Page 235
  Solving Problems......Page 236
  Creativity and Problem Solving......Page 244
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Eureka! Understanding the Underpinnings of Creativity......Page 245
  Grammar: Language's Language......Page 247
  Language Development: Developing a Way with Words......Page 248
  Understanding Language Acquisition: Identifying the Roots of Language......Page 249
  Do Animals Use Language?......Page 252
  Exploring Diversity: Teaching with Linguistic Variety: Bilingual Education......Page 253
 Module 23 Intelligence......Page 255
  Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?......Page 256
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: How You Think About Intelligence Helps Determine Your Success......Page 258
  Variations in Intellectual Ability......Page 264
  Group Differences in Intelligence: Genetic and  Environmental Determinants......Page 266
  Exploring Diversity: The Relative Influence of Genetics and Environment: Nature,  Nurture, and IQ......Page 267
Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion......Page 273
  Instinct Approaches: Born to Be Motivated......Page 275
  Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying Our Basic Needs......Page 276
  Incentive Approaches: Motivated by Temptation......Page 278
  Cognitive Approaches: Thoughts Behind Motivation......Page 280
  The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating......Page 282
  PsychWork: Nutritionist......Page 285
  Sexual Motivation......Page 286
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Dieting and Losing Weight Successfully......Page 287
  The Needs for Affiliation, Power, and Achievement......Page 293
 Module 26 Understanding Emotional Experiences......Page 296
  Determining the Range of Emotions: Labelling Our Feelings......Page 297
  The Roots of Emotions......Page 298
  Exploring Diversity: Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly?......Page 302
Chapter 9 Development......Page 309
 Module 27 Nature, Nurture, and Prenatal Development......Page 311
  Developmental Research Techniques......Page 313
  Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth......Page 314
  The Extraordinary Newborn......Page 320
  The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood......Page 323
  PsychWork: Child Protection Caseworker......Page 331
  Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent......Page 338
  Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong......Page 340
  Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World......Page 341
  Exploring Diversity: Rites of Passage: Coming of Age Around the World......Page 343
 Module 30 Adulthood......Page 345
  Physical Development: The Peak of Health......Page 346
  The Later Years of Life: Growing Old......Page 347
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Gaming in Late Adulthood: How Video Games May Improve Cognitive Functioning in Older Adults......Page 350
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Adjusting to Death......Page 352
Chapter 10 Personality......Page 357
  FreudÕs Psychoanalytic Theory: Mapping the Unconscious Mind......Page 359
  The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts: Building on Freud......Page 365
  Trait Approaches: Placing Labels on Personality......Page 367
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Judged at First Sight......Page 370
  Learning Approaches: We Are What WeÕve Learned......Page 371
  Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Are We Born with Personality?......Page 372
  Humanistic Approaches: The Uniqueness of You......Page 374
  Comparing Approaches to Personality......Page 375
 Module 33 Assessing Personality: Determining What Makes Us Distinctive......Page 377
  Exploring Diversity: Should Race and Ethnicity Be Used to Establish Norms?......Page 378
  Self-Report Measures of Personality......Page 379
  Projective Methods......Page 381
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Assessing Personality Assessments......Page 383
Chapter 11 Health Psychology: Stress, Coping, and Well-Being......Page 387
  Stress: Reacting to Threat and Challenge......Page 389
  Coping with Stress......Page 396
  The A's, B's, and D's of Coronary Heart Disease......Page 399
  Psychological Aspects of Cancer......Page 401
  Smoking......Page 402
  Following Medical Advice......Page 404
  Well-Being and Happiness......Page 406
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Does Money Buy Happiness?......Page 408
Chapter 12 Psychological Disorders......Page 413
  Defining Abnormality......Page 415
  Perspectives on Abnormality: From Superstition to Science......Page 417
  Classifying Abnormal Behaviour: The ABCs of Dsm......Page 420
  Anxiety Disorders......Page 424
  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder......Page 427
  Mood Disorders......Page 428
  Schizophrenia......Page 432
  Personality Disorders......Page 437
  Childhood Disorders......Page 438
  Somatoform Disorders......Page 439
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Internet Addiction......Page 440
  Prevalence of Psychological Disorders: The Mental State of North America......Page 442
  The Social and Cultural Context of Psychological Disorders......Page 443
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Deciding When You Need Help......Page 444
Chapter 13 Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 449
  Psychodynamic Approaches to Therapy......Page 451
  Behavioural Approaches to Therapy......Page 454
  Cognitive Approaches to Therapy......Page 457
  Humanistic Therapy......Page 460
  Interpersonal Therapy......Page 461
  Group Therapy, Self-Help Groups, and Family Therapy......Page 462
  Evaluating Psychotherapy: Does Therapy Work?......Page 463
  Exploring Diversity: Racial and Ethnic Factors in Treatment......Page 465
  Drug Therapy......Page 467
  Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)......Page 470
  Biomedical Therapies in Perspective......Page 471
  Community Psychology: Focus on Prevention......Page 472
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Beating the Odds: Preventing Psychological Disorders Before They Start......Page 474
Chapter 14 Social Psychology......Page 477
  Persuasion: Changing Attitudes......Page 479
  Social Cognition: Understanding Others......Page 480
  Exploring Diversity: Attributions in a Cultural Context: How Fundamental Is the Fundamental Attribution Error?......Page 485
  Conformity: Following What Others Do......Page 487
  Compliance: Submitting to Direct Social Pressure......Page 489
  Obedience: Following Direct Orders......Page 490
  The Prison Study: The Power of the Situation......Page 492
 Module 45 Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 493
  Foundations of Prejudice......Page 494
  Reducing the Consequences of Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 495
  Liking and Loving: Interpersonal Attraction and the Development of Relationships......Page 497
  Applying Psychology in the Real World: Friends Online: Is Facebook the New Student Union?......Page 500
  Aggression and Prosocial Behaviour: Hurting and Helping Others......Page 501
  Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology: Dealing Effectively with Anger......Page 505
Glossary......Page 510
References......Page 522
Name Index......Page 573
Subject Index......Page 584