Essentials of Geology + Masteringgeology With Etext Access Card

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Acknowledgments
Contents
PREFACE
1 An Introduction to Geology
	1.1 Geology: The Science of Earth
		Physical and Historical Geology
		Geology, People, and the Environment
	1.2 The Development of Geology
		Catastrophism
		The Birth of Modern Geology
		Geology Today
		The Magnitude of Geologic Time
	1.3 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry
		Hypothesis
		Theory
		Scientific Methods
		Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry
	1.4 Earth’s Spheres
		Hydrosphere
		Atmosphere
		Biosphere
		Geosphere
	1.5 Earth as a System
		Earth System Science
		The Earth System
	1.6 Early Evolution of Earth
		Origin of Planet Earth
		Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure
	1.7 Earth’s Internal Structure
		Earth’s Crust
		Earth’s Mantle
		Earth’s Core
	1.8 Rocks and the Rock Cycle
		The Basic Cycle
		Alternative Paths
	1.9 The Face of Earth
		Major Features of the Continents
		Major Features of the Ocean Floor
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
2 Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds
	2.1 From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics
	2.2 Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time
		Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
		Evidence: Fossils Matching Across the Seas
		Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features
		Evidence: Ancient Climates
	2.3 The Great Debate
		Rejection of the Drift Hypothesis
	2.4 The Theory of Plate Tectonics
		Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere
		Earth’s Major Plates
		Plate Boundaries
	2.5 Divergent Plate Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading
		Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
		Continental Rifting
	2.6 Convergent Plate Boundaries and Subduction
		Oceanic–Continental Convergence
		Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence
		Continental–Continental Convergence
	2.7 Transform Plate Boundaries
	2.8 How Do Plates and Plate Boundaries Change?
		The Breakup of Pangaea
		Plate Tectonics in the Future
	2.9 Testing the Plate Tectonics Model
		Evidence: Ocean Drilling
		Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
		Evidence: Paleomagnetism
	2.10 How Is Plate Motion Measured?
		Geologic Evidence for Plate Motion
		Measuring Plate Motion from Space
	2.11 What Drives Plate Motions?
		Forces That Drive Plate Motion
		Models of Plate–Mantle Convection
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
3 Matter and Minerals
	3.1 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rock
		Defining a Mineral
		What Is a Rock?
	3.2 Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals
		Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
		Elements: Defined by Their Number of
	3.3 Why Atoms Bond
		The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds
		Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred
		Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing
		Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move
	3.4 Properties of a Mineral
		Optical Properties
		Mineral Strength
		Density and Specific Gravity
		Other Properties of Minerals
	3.5 Mineral Groups
		Classifying Minerals
		Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals
	3.6 The Silicates
		Silicate Structures
		Joining Silicate Structures
	3.7 Common Silicate Minerals
		The Light Silicates
		The Dark Silicates
	3.8 Important Nonsilicate Minerals
	3.9 Minerals: A Nonrenewable Resource
		Renewable Versus Nonrenewable Resources
		Mineral Resources and Ore Deposits
	Concepts in Review:
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
4 Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Activity
	4.1 Magma: Parent Material of Igneous Rock
		The Nature of Magma
		From Magma to Crystalline Rock
		Igneous Processes
	4.2 Igneous Compositions
		Granitic (Felsic) Versus Basaltic (Mafic) Compositions
		Other Compositional Groups
		Silica Content as an Indicator of Composition
	4.3 Igneous Textures: What Can They Tell Us?
		Types of Igneous Textures
	4.4 Naming Igneous Rocks
		Granitic (Felsic) Igneous Rocks
		Andesitic (Intermediate) Igneous Rocks
		Basaltic (Mafic) Igneous Rocks
		Pyroclastic Rocks
	4.5 Origin of Magma
		Generating Magma from Solid Rock
	4.6 How Magmas Evolve
		Bowen’s Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks
		Magmatic Differentiation and Crystal Settling
		Assimilation and Magma Mixing
	4.7 Partial Melting and Magma Composition
		Formation of Basaltic Magma
		Formation of Andesitic and Granitic Magmas
	4.8 Intrusive Igneous Activity
		Nature of Intrusive Bodies
		Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes and Sills
		Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, and Laccoliths
	4.9 Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes
		Magmatic Segregation and Ore Deposits
		Hydrothermal Deposits
		Origin of Diamonds
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
5 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards
	5.1 Mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea
	5.2 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions
		Factors Affecting Viscosity
		Quiescent Versus Explosive Eruptions
	5.3 Materials Extruded During an Eruption
		Lava Flows
		Gases
		Pyroclastic Materials
	5.4 Anatomy of a Volcano
	5.5 Shield Volcanoes
		Mauna Loa: Earth’s Largest Shield Volcano
		Kilauea, Hawaii: Eruption of a Shield Volcano
	5.6 Cinder Cones
		Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone
	5.7 Composite Volcanoes
	5.8 Volcanic Hazards
		Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature
		Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones
		Other Volcanic Hazards
	5.9 Other Volcanic Landforms
		Calderas
		Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus
		Lava Domes
		Volcanic Necks and Pipes
	5.10 Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity
		Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries
		Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries
		Intraplate Volcanism
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
6 Weathering and Soils
	6.1 Weathering
	6.2 Mechanical Weathering
		Frost Wedging
		Salt Crystal Growth
		Sheeting
		Biological Activity
	6.3 Chemical Weathering
		Water and Carbonic Acid
		How Granite Weathers
		Weathering of Silicate Minerals
		Spheroidal Weathering
	6.4 Rates of Weathering
		Rock Characteristics
		Climate
		Differential Weathering
	6.5 Soil
		An Interface in the Earth System
		What Is Soil?
	6.6 Controls of Soil Formation
		Parent Material
		Time
		Climate
		Plants and Animals
		Topography
	6.7 The Soil Profile
	6.8 Classifying Soils
	6.9 The Impact of Human Activities on Soil
		Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest—A Case Study of Human Impact on Soil
		Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource
	6.10 Weathering and Ore Deposits
		Bauxite
		Other Deposits
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
7 Sedimentary Rocks
	7.1 The Importance of Sedimentary Rocks
	7.2 Origins of Sedimentary Rock
	7.3 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
		Shale
		Sandstone
		Conglomerate and Breccia
	7.4 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
		Limestone
		Dolostone
		Chert
		Evaporites
	7.5 Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock
	7.6 Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification
		Diagenesis
		Lithification
	7.7 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
	7.8 Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments
		Importance of Sedimentary Environments
		Sedimentary Facies
		Sedimentary Structures
	7.9 Resources from Sedimentary Rocks
		Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
		Energy Resources
	7.10 The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
8 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
	8.1 What Is Metamorphism?
	8.2 What Drives Metamorphism?
		Heat as a Metamorphic Agent
		Confining Pressure
		Differential Stress
		Chemically Active Fluids
		The Importance of Parent Rock
	8.3 Metamorphic Textures
		Foliation
		Foliated Textures
		Other Metamorphic Textures
	8.4 Common Metamorphic Rocks
		Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
		Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
	8.5 Metamorphic Environments
		Contact or Thermal Metamorphism
		Hydrothermal Metamorphism
		Burial and Subduction Zone Metamorphism
		Regional Metamorphism
		Other Metamorphic Environments
	8.6 Metamorphic Zones
		Textural Variations
		Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
9 Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior
	9.1 What Is an Earthquake?
		Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes
		Aftershocks and Foreshocks
		Faults and Large Earthquakes
	9.2 Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves
		Instruments That Record Earthquakes
		Seismic Waves
	9.3 Locating the Source of an Earthquake
	9.4 Determining the Size of Earthquakes
		Intensity Scales
		Magnitude Scales
	9.5 Earthquake Destruction
		Destruction from Seismic Vibrations
		Landslides and Ground Subsidence
		Fire
		What Is a Tsunami?
	9.6 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur?
		Earthquakes Associated with Plate boundaries
		Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies
	9.7 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?
		Short-Range Predictions
		Long-Range Forecasts
	9.8 Earth’s Interior
		Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure
		Probing Earth’s Interior: “Seeing” Seismic Waves
	9.9 Earth’s Layers
		Crust
		Mantle
		Core
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
10 Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor
	10.1 An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor
		Mapping the Seafloor
		Provinces of the Ocean Floor
	10.2 Continental Margins
		Passive Continental Margins
		Active Continental Margins
	10.3 Features of Deep-Ocean Basins
		Deep-Ocean Trenches
		Abyssal Plains
		Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor
		Explaining Coral Atolls—Darwin’s Hypothesis
	10.4 Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge
	10.5 Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
		Seafloor Spreading
		Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?
		Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography
	10.6 The Nature of Oceanic Crust
		How Does Oceanic Crust Form?
		Interactions Between Seawater and Oceanic Crust
	10.7 Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin
		Evolution of an Ocean Basin
		Failed Rifts
	10.8 Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere
		Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts
		Subducting Plates: The Demise of Ocean Basins
	Concepts In Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
11 Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building
	11.1 Crustal Deformation
		What Causes Rocks to Deform?
		Types of Deformation
		Factors That Affect Rock Strength
	11.2 Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation
		Anticlines and Synclines
		Domes and Basins
		Monoclines
	11.3 Faults and Joints: Rock Structures Formed by Brittle Deformation
		Dip-Slip Faults
		Strike-Slip Faults
		Joints
	11.4 Mountain Building
	11.5 Subduction and Mountain Building
		Island Arc–Type Mountain Building
		Andean-Type Mountain Building
		Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and Great Valley
	11.6 Collisional Mountain Belts
		Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building
		Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions
		The Himalayas
		The Appalachians
	11.7 What Causes Earth’s Varied Topography?
		The Principle of Isostasy
		How High Is Too High?
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
12 Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity
	12.1 The Importance of Mass Wasting
		Landslides as Geologic Hazards
		The Role of Mass Wasting in Landform Development
		Slopes Change Through Time
	12.2 Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting
		The Role of Water
		Oversteepened Slopes
		Removal of Vegetation
		Earthquakes as Triggers
		Landslides Without Triggers?
		The Potential for Landslides
	12.3 Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes
		Type of Material
		Type of Motion
		Rate of Movement
	12.4 Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting
		Rockslide
		Debris Flow
		Earthflow
	12.5 Slow Movements
		Creep
		Solifluction
		The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
13 Running Water
	13.1 Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle
	13.2 Running Water
		Drainage Basins
		River Systems
		Drainage Patterns
	13.3 Streamflow
		Factors Affecting Flow Velocity
		Changes Downstream
	13.4 The Work of Running Water
		Stream Erosion
		Transport of Sediment by Streams
		Deposition of Sediment by Streams
	13.5 Stream Channels
		Bedrock Channels
		Alluvial Channels
	13.6 Shaping Stream Valleys
		Base Level and Graded Streams
		Valley Deepening
		Valley Widening
		Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces
	13.7 Depositional Landforms
		Deltas
		The Mississippi River Delta
		Natural Levees
		Alluvial Fans
	13.8 Floods and Flood Control
		Types of Floods
		Flood Control
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
14 Groundwater
	14.1 The Importance of Groundwater
		Groundwater and the Hydrosphere
		Geologic Importance of Groundwater
		Groundwater: A Basic Resource
	14.2 Groundwater and the Water Table
		Distribution of Groundwater
		The Water Table
	14.3 Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater
		Porosity
		Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers
	14.4 How Groundwater Moves
		A Simple Groundwater Flow System
		Measuring Groundwater Movement
		Different Scales of Movement
	14.5 Wells
	14.6 Artesian Systems
	14.7 Springs, Hot Springs, and Geysers
		Springs
		Hot Springs
		Geysers
	14.8 Environmental Problems
		Mining Groundwater
		Subsidence
		Saltwater Contamination
		Groundwater Contamination
	14.9 The Geologic Work of Groundwater
		Caverns
		Karst Topography
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
15 Glaciers and Glaciation
	15.1 Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles
		Valley (Alpine) Glaciers
		Ice Sheets
		Other Types of Glaciers
	15.2 Formation and Movement of Glacial Ice
		Glacial Ice Formation
		How Glaciers Move
		Observing and Measuring Movement
		Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation Versus Wastage
	15.3 Glacial Erosion
		How Glaciers Erode
		Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion
	15.4 Glacial Deposits
		Glacial Drift
		Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles
		Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames
	15.5 Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers
		Crustal Subsidence and Rebound
		Sea-Level Changes
		Changes to Rivers and Valleys
		Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes
		Pluvial Lakes
	15.6 The Ice Age
		Development of the Glacial Theory
		Causes of Ice Ages
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
16 Deserts and Wind
	16.1 Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands
		What Is Meant by Dry?
		Subtropical Deserts and Steppes
		Middle-Latitude Deserts and Steppes
	16.2 Geologic Processes in Arid Climates
		Weathering
		The Role of Water
	16.3 Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape
	16.4 Wind Erosion
		Transportation of Sediment by Wind
		Erosional Features
	16.5 Wind Deposits
		Sand Deposits
		Types of Sand Dunes
		Loess (Silt) Deposits
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
17 Shorelines
	17.1 The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface
		The Coastal Zone
		Basic Features
		Beaches
	17.2 Ocean Waves
		Wave Characteristics
		Circular Orbital Motion
		Waves in the Surf Zone
	17.3 Shoreline Processes
		Wave Erosion
		Sand Movement on the Beach
	17.4 Shoreline Features
		Erosional Features
		Depositional Features
		The Evolving Shore
	17.5 Stabilizing the Shore
		Hard Stabilization
		Alternatives to Hard Stabilization
	17.6 Contrasting America’s Coasts
		Atlantic and Gulf Coasts
		Pacific Coast
		Coastal Classification
	17.7 Hurricanes: The Ultimate Coastal Hazard
		Profile of a Hurricane
		Hurricane Destruction
	17.8 Tides
		Causes of Tides
		Monthly Tidal Cycle
		Tidal Currents
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
18 Geologic Time
	18.1 Creating a Time Scale: Relative Dating Principles
		The Importance of a Time Scale
		Numerical and Relative Dates
		Principle of Superposition
		Principle of Original Horizontality
		Principle of Lateral Continuity
		Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
		Inclusions
		Unconformities
		Applying Relative Dating Principles
	18.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
		Types of Fossils
		Conditions Favoring Preservation
	18.3 Correlation of Rock Layers
		Correlation Within Limited Areas
		Fossils and Correlation
	18.4 Dating with Radioactivity
		Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure
		Radioactivity
		Half-Life
		Using Various Isotopes
		Dating with Carbon-14
	18.5 The Geologic Time Scale
		Structure of the Time Scale
		Precambrian Time
		Terminology and the Geologic Time Scale
	18.6 Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary Strata
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
19 Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic Time
	19.1 Is Earth Unique?
		The Right Planet
		The Right Location
		The Right Time
		Viewing Earth’s History
	19.2 Birth of a Planet
		From the Big Bang to Heavy Elements
		From Planetesimals to Protoplanets
		Earth’s Early Evolution
	19.3 Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans
		Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere
		Oxygen in the Atmosphere
		Evolution of the Oceans
	19.4 Precambrian History: The Formation of Earth’s Continents
		Earth’s First Continents
		The Making of North America
		Supercontinents of the Precambrian
	19.5 Geologic History of the Phanerozoic: The Formation of Earth’s Modern Continents
		Paleozoic History
		Mesozoic History
		Cenozoic History
	19.6 Earth’s First Life
		Origin of Life
		Earth’s First Life: Prokaryotes
	19.7 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
		Early Paleozoic Life-Forms
		Vertebrates Move to Land
		Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates
		The Great Permian Extinction
	19.8 Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs
		Gymnosperms: The Dominant Mesozoic Trees
		Reptiles: Dominating the Land, Sea, and Sky
		Demise of the Dinosaurs
	19.9 Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
		From Reptiles to Mammals
		Marsupial and Placental Mammals
		Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion
		Large Mammals and Extinction
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
20 Global Climate Change
	20.1 Climate and Geology
		The Climate System
		Climate–Geology Connections
	20.2 Detecting Climate Change
		Seafloor Sediment—A Storehouse of Climate Data
		Oxygen Isotope Analysis
		Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice
		Tree Rings—Archives of Environmental History
		Other Types of Proxy Data
	20.3 Some Atmospheric Basics
		Composition of the Atmosphere
		Extent and Structure of the Atmosphere
	20.4 Heating the Atmosphere
		Energy from the Sun
		The Paths of Incoming Solar Energy
		Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect
	20.5 Natural Causes of Climate Change
		Plate Movements and Orbital Variations
		Volcanic Activity and Climate Change
		Solar Variability and Climate
	20.6 Human Impact on Global Climate
		Rising CO2 Levels
		The Atmosphere’s Response
		The Role of Trace Gases
	20.7 Climate-Feedback Mechanisms
		Types of Feedback Mechanisms
		Computer Models of Climate: Important yet Imperfect Tools
	20.8 How Aerosols Influence Climate
	20.9 Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming
		Sea-Level Rise
		The Changing Arctic
		Increasing Ocean Acidity
		The Potential for “Surprises”
	Concepts in Review
	Give It Some Thought
	MasteringGeology
APPENDIX: Metric and English Units Compared
GLOSSARY
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INDEX
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