Essentials of Geology, 13th Edition

Cover
......Page 1
Title Page
......Page 4
Copyright Page
......Page 5
Brief Contents
......Page 6
Contents
......Page 7
Digital and Print Resources
......Page 19
Walkthrough
......Page 22
1 An Introduction to Geology......Page 35
Physical and Historical Geology......Page 37
Geology, People, and the Environment......Page 38
The Birth of Modern Geology......Page 39
Geology Today......Page 40
The Magnitude of Geologic Time......Page 41
1.3 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry......Page 42
Scientific Methods......Page 43
Earth’s Spheres......Page 44
Hydrosphere......Page 45
Atmosphere......Page 46
Earth System Science......Page 47
The Earth System......Page 48
Origin of Planet Earth......Page 50
Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure......Page 51
Earth’s Mantle......Page 52
Earth’s Core......Page 53
Alternative Paths......Page 54
1.8 The Face of Earth......Page 57
Major Features of the Continents......Page 59
Concepts in Review......Page 61
Give It Some Thought......Page 63
2 Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds......Page 65
2.1 From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics......Page 67
Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle......Page 68
Evidence: Fossils Matching Across the Seas......Page 69
Evidence: Ancient Climates......Page 70
The Great Debate......Page 71
Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere......Page 72
Plate Movement......Page 73
2.4 Divergent Plate Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading......Page 74
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading......Page 75
Continental Rifting......Page 76
2.5 Convergent Plate Boundaries and Subduction......Page 77
Oceanic–Continental Convergence......Page 78
Continental–Continental Convergence......Page 79
2.6 Transform Plate Boundaries......Page 81
The Breakup of Pangaea......Page 83
Plate Tectonics in the Future......Page 84
Evidence: Ocean Drilling......Page 85
Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots......Page 86
Evidence: Paleomagnetism......Page 87
Geologic Measurement of Plate Motion......Page 90
Measuring Plate Motion from Space......Page 91
Forces That Drive Plate Motion......Page 92
Models of Plate–Mantle Convection......Page 93
Concepts in Review......Page 94
Give It Some Thought......Page 96
3 Matter & Minerals......Page 99
Defining a Mineral......Page 101
What Is a Rock?......Page 102
Properties of Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons......Page 103
Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons......Page 104
Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred......Page 105
Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing......Page 106
Optical Properties......Page 107
Crystal Shape, or Habit......Page 108
Mineral Strength......Page 109
Other Properties of Minerals......Page 111
Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals......Page 112
Silicate Structures......Page 113
Joining Silicate Structures......Page 114
The Light Silicates......Page 115
The Dark Silicates......Page 118
3.8 Important Nonsilicate Minerals......Page 119
Mineral Resources & Ore Deposits......Page 121
Concepts in Review......Page 124
Give It Some Thought......Page 125
4 Igneous Rocks & Intrusive Activity......Page 127
The Nature of Magma......Page 129
Igneous Processes......Page 130
Compositional Categories......Page 131
Types of Igneous Textures......Page 133
4.4 Naming Igneous Rocks......Page 136
Felsic Igneous Rocks......Page 138
Pyroclastic Rocks......Page 139
Generating Magma from Solid Rock......Page 141
Bowen’s Reaction Series & the Composition of Igneous Rocks......Page 143
Assimilation & Magma Mixing......Page 144
4.7 Partial Melting & Magma Composition......Page 145
Formation of Andesitic & Granitic Magmas......Page 146
Nature of Intrusive Bodies......Page 147
Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes & Sills......Page 148
Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, & Laccoliths......Page 149
4.9 Mineral Resources & Igneous Processes......Page 150
Magmatic Differentiation & Ore Deposits......Page 151
Hydrothermal Deposits......Page 152
Concepts in Review......Page 153
Give It Some Thought......Page 157
5 Volcanoes & Volcanic Hazards......Page 159
5.1 Mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea......Page 161
Magma: Source Material for Volcanic Eruptions......Page 162
Effusive Versus Explosive Eruptions......Page 163
How Explosive Eruptions Are Triggered......Page 164
Lava Flows......Page 166
Pyroclastic Materials......Page 168
5.4 Anatomy of a Volcano......Page 169
Mauna Loa: Earth’s Largest Shield Volcano......Page 170
Kilauea: Hawaii’s Most Active Volcano......Page 171
5.6 Cinder Cones......Page 172
Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone......Page 173
5.7 Composite Volcanoes......Page 174
Historical Development of the Glacial Theory 414......Page 0
Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature......Page 175
Other Volcanic Hazards......Page 177
Calderas......Page 179
Fissure Eruptions & Basalt Plateaus......Page 180
Volcanic Necks......Page 182
5.10 Plate Tectonics & Volcanism......Page 183
Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries......Page 184
Intraplate Volcanism......Page 187
Concepts in Review......Page 189
Give It Some Thought......Page 191
6 Weathering & Soils......Page 193
6.1 Weathering......Page 195
Salt Crystal Growth......Page 196
Sheeting......Page 197
Biological Activity......Page 198
The Importance of Water......Page 199
Weathering of Silicate Minerals......Page 200
Rock Characteristics......Page 201
Differential Weathering......Page 202
6.5 Soil: An Indispensable Resource......Page 203
Controls of Soil Formation......Page 204
The Soil Profile......Page 206
Classifying Soils......Page 208
Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest: A Case Study of Human Impact on Soil......Page 209
Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource......Page 210
Other Deposits......Page 213
Concepts in Review......Page 214
Give It Some Thought......Page 216
7 Sedimentary Rocks......Page 217
Importance......Page 219
Origins......Page 220
7.2 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks......Page 221
Shale......Page 222
Sandstone......Page 223
7.3 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks......Page 225
Limestone......Page 226
Chert......Page 228
Evaporites......Page 229
7.4 Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock......Page 230
Lithification......Page 231
7.6 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks......Page 232
7.7 Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments......Page 233
Sedimentary Structures......Page 234
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources......Page 239
Energy Resources......Page 240
7.9 The Carbon Cycle & Sedimentary Rocks......Page 243
Concepts in Review......Page 244
Give It Some Thought......Page 247
8 Metamorphism & Metamorphic Rocks......Page 249
8.1 What Is Metamorphism?......Page 251
Heat as a Metamorphic Agent......Page 252
Differential Stress......Page 253
Chemically Active Fluids......Page 254
Foliation......Page 255
Foliated Textures......Page 257
8.4 Common Metamorphic Rocks......Page 258
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks......Page 259
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks......Page 260
8.5 Metamorphic Environments......Page 261
Hydrothermal Metamorphism......Page 262
Other Metamorphic Environments......Page 264
Textural Variations......Page 265
Index Minerals & Metamorphic Grade......Page 266
Concepts in Review......Page 267
Give It Some Thought......Page 269
9 Earthquakes & Earth’s Interior......Page 271
Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes......Page 273
Faults & Large Earthquakes......Page 275
Fault Rupture & Propagation......Page 276
Seismic Waves......Page 277
9.3 Locating the Source of an Earthquake......Page 279
Magnitude Scales......Page 281
9.5 Earthquake Destruction......Page 283
Destruction from Seismic Vibrations......Page 284
Fire......Page 285
Tsunamis......Page 286
Earthquakes Associated with Plate Boundaries......Page 288
Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies......Page 289
9.7 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?......Page 290
Short-Range Predictions......Page 291
Long-Range Forecasts......Page 292
Earth’s Layered Structure......Page 294
Concepts in Review......Page 296
Give It Some Thought......Page 299
10 Origin & Evolution of the Ocean Floor......Page 301
Mapping the Seafloor......Page 303
Passive Continental Margins......Page 307
Active Continental Margins......Page 308
Deep-Ocean Trenches......Page 309
Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor......Page 310
Explaining Coral Atolls—Darwin’s Hypothesis......Page 311
10.4 Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge......Page 312
10.5 Oceanic Ridges & Seafloor Spreading......Page 313
Spreading Rates & Ridge Topography......Page 314
How Does Oceanic Crust Form?......Page 315
Interactions Between Seawater & Oceanic Crust......Page 316
Evolution of an Ocean Basin......Page 317
Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts......Page 319
Subducting Plates: The Demise of Ocean Basins......Page 320
Concepts in Review......Page 322
Give It Some Thought......Page 323
11 Crustal Deformation & Mountain Building......Page 325
What Causes Rocks to Deform?......Page 327
Factors That Affect How Rocks Deform......Page 329
11.2 Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation......Page 330
Anticlines & Synclines......Page 331
Domes & Basins......Page 332
Monoclines......Page 333
Dip-Slip Faults......Page 334
Strike-Slip Faults......Page 336
Joints......Page 337
11.4 Mountain Building......Page 339
Andean-Type Mountain Building......Page 340
Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, & Great Valley......Page 341
Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building......Page 342
Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions......Page 343
The Himalayas......Page 344
The Appalachians......Page 345
The Principle of Isostasy......Page 347
How High Is Too High?......Page 348
Concepts in Review......Page 349
Give It Some Thought......Page 351
12 Mass Movement on Slopes: The Work of Gravity......Page 353
12.1 The Importance of Mass Movement......Page 355
The Role of Mass Movement in Landscape Development......Page 356
Oversteepened Slopes......Page 357
Removal of Vegetation......Page 359
Earthquakes as Triggers......Page 360
Type of Material......Page 361
Rate of Movement......Page 362
12.4 Common Forms of Mass Movement: Rapid to Slow......Page 363
Rockslide & Debris Avalanche......Page 364
Debris Flow......Page 365
Creep......Page 367
The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape......Page 368
Concepts in Review......Page 369
Give It Some Thought......Page 371
13 Running Water......Page 373
Water’s Paths......Page 375
13.2 Running Water......Page 376
Drainage Basins......Page 377
River Systems......Page 378
Drainage Patterns......Page 379
Factors Affecting Flow Velocity......Page 380
Changes Downstream......Page 382
Stream Erosion......Page 383
Transport of Sediment by Streams......Page 384
Alluvial Channels......Page 386
13.6 Shaping Stream Valleys......Page 388
Valley Deepening......Page 389
Incised Meanders & Stream Terraces......Page 390
The Mississippi River Delta......Page 392
Natural Levees......Page 393
Alluvial Fans......Page 394
Types of Floods......Page 395
Flood Control......Page 396
Concepts in Review......Page 397
Give It Some Thought......Page 399
14 Groundwater......Page 401
Geologic Importance of Groundwater......Page 403
Groundwater: A Basic Resource......Page 404
Variations in the Water Table......Page 405
Influential Factors......Page 407
How Groundwater Moves......Page 408
Wells......Page 410
Artesian Systems......Page 411
Springs......Page 412
Geysers......Page 413
Geothermal Energy......Page 414
Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource......Page 416
Saltwater Contamination......Page 417
Groundwater Contamination......Page 418
14.7 The Geologic Work of Groundwater......Page 419
Caverns......Page 420
Karst Topography......Page 421
Concepts in Review......Page 423
Give It Some Thought......Page 425
15 Glaciers & Glaciation......Page 427
Ice Sheets......Page 429
Other Types of Glaciers......Page 431
How Glaciers Move......Page 432
Observing & Measuring Movement......Page 433
Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation Versus Wastage......Page 434
15.3 Glacial Erosion......Page 435
How Glaciers Erode......Page 436
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion......Page 437
Glacial Drift......Page 440
Moraines, Outwash Plains, & Kettles......Page 441
Drumlins, Eskers, & Kames......Page 443
Sea-Level Changes......Page 444
Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes......Page 445
Pluvial Lakes......Page 446
15.6 The Ice Age......Page 447
Causes of Ice Ages......Page 448
Concepts in Review......Page 451
Give It Some Thought......Page 453
16 Deserts & Wind......Page 455
Subtropical Deserts & Steppes......Page 457
Middle-Latitude Deserts & Steppes......Page 458
Dry-Region Weathering......Page 459
The Role of Water......Page 460
16.3 Basin & Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape......Page 461
Erosional Features......Page 463
Sand Deposits......Page 466
Types of Sand Dunes......Page 467
Loess (Silt) Deposits......Page 468
Concepts in Review......Page 469
Give It Some Thought......Page 471
17 Shorelines......Page 473
Ocean Waves......Page 475
Circular Orbital Motion......Page 476
Waves in the Surf Zone......Page 477
17.2 Beaches & Shoreline Processes......Page 478
Sand Movement on the Beach......Page 479
Depositional Features......Page 482
The Evolving Shore......Page 484
Coastal Classification......Page 485
Atlantic & Gulf Coasts......Page 486
Pacific Coast......Page 487
Profile of a Hurricane......Page 488
Hurricane Destruction......Page 489
Hard Stabilization......Page 492
Alternatives to Hard Stabilization......Page 494
Causes of Tides......Page 495
Tidal Currents......Page 496
Concepts in Review......Page 497
Give It Some Thought......Page 499
18 Geologic Time......Page 501
The Importance of a Time Scale......Page 503
Principle of Original Horizontality......Page 504
Principle of Inclusions......Page 505
Unconformities......Page 506
Applying Relative Dating Principles......Page 508
Types of Fossils......Page 509
Fossils & Correlation......Page 511
Changes to Atomic Nuclei......Page 514
Half-Life......Page 515
Dating with Carbon-14......Page 516
18.5 Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary Strata......Page 517
Structure of the Time Scale......Page 518
Precambrian Time......Page 519
Terminology & the Geologic Time Scale......Page 520
Concepts in Review......Page 521
Give It Some Thought......Page 522
19 Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic Time......Page 525
The Right Planet......Page 527
Viewing Earth’s History......Page 528
Earth’s Early Evolution......Page 530
Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere......Page 532
Evolution of the Oceans......Page 533
Earth’s First Continents......Page 535
The Making of North America......Page 537
Supercontinents of the Precambrian......Page 538
Paleozoic History......Page 539
Mesozoic History......Page 540
Cenozoic History......Page 541
Earth’s First Life: Prokaryotes......Page 543
Early Paleozoic Life-Forms......Page 546
Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates......Page 547
Reptiles Take Over the Land, Sea, and Sky......Page 549
Demise of the Dinosaurs......Page 550
From Dinosaurs to Mammals......Page 552
Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion......Page 553
Large Mammals and Extinction......Page 554
Concepts in Review......Page 555
Give It Some Thought......Page 557
20 Global Climate Change......Page 559
Climate–Geology Connections......Page 561
Climates Change......Page 562
Seafloor Sediment: A Storehouse of Climate Data......Page 563
Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice......Page 564
Other Types of Proxy Data......Page 565
Composition of the Atmosphere......Page 566
Extent & Structure of the Atmosphere......Page 567
Energy from the Sun......Page 569
The Paths of Incoming Solar Energy......Page 570
Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect......Page 571
Volcanic Activity & Climate Change......Page 572
Solar Variability & Climate......Page 574
Rising Co2 Levels......Page 575
The Role of Trace Gases......Page 577
How Aerosols Influence Climate......Page 579
Computer Models of Climate: Important yet Imperfect Tools......Page 580
Sea-Level Rise......Page 581
The Changing Arctic......Page 583
Increasing Ocean Acidity......Page 584
Concepts in Review......Page 585
Give It Some Thought......Page 588
APPENDIX Metric and English Units Compared
......Page 589
GLOSSARY......Page 590
INDEX......Page 601