Essentials of anatomy & physiology

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Preface
Contents
1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
	An Introduction to Studying the Human Body
	1-1 All living things display responsiveness, growth, reproduction, movement, and metabolism
	1-2 Anatomy is structure, and physiology is function
		Anatomy
		Physiology
	1-3 Levels of organization progress from atoms and molecules to a complete organism
	1-4 The human body consists of 11 organ systems
	1-5 Homeostasis is the state of internal balance
	1-6 Negative feedback opposes variations from normal, whereas positive feedback exaggerates them
		Negative Feedback
		Positive Feedback
	1-7 Anatomical terms describe body regions, anatomical positions and directions, and body sections
		Surface Anatomy
		Sectional Anatomy
	1-8 Body cavities of the trunk protect internal organs and allow them to change shape
		The Thoracic Cavity
		The Abdominopelvic Cavity
	SPOTLIGHT Levels 0f Organization
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Homeostasis and Disease
		Imaging Techniques
	Chapter Review
2 The Chemical Level of Organization
	An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization
	2-1 Atoms are the basic particles of matter
		Atomic Structure
		Isotopes
		Atomic Weight
		Electron Shells
	2-2 Chemical bonds are forces formed by interactions between atoms
		Ionic Bonds
		Covalent Bonds
		Hydrogen Bonds
	2-3 Decomposition, synthesis, and exchange reactions are important chemical reactions in physiology
		Basic Energy Concepts
		Types of Reactions
		Reversible Reactions
	2-4 Enzymes catalyze specific biochemical reactions by lowering a reaction’s activation energy
	2-5 Inorganic compounds usually lack carbon, and organic compounds always contain carbon
	2-6 Physiological systems depend on water
	2-7 Body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis
	2-8 Acids, bases, and salts have important physiological roles
		Salts
		Buffers and pH
	2-9 Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
		Monosaccharides
		Disaccharides and Polysaccharides
	2-10 Lipids contain a carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of 1:2
		Fatty Acids
		Fats
		Steroids
		Phospholipids
	2-11 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and are formed from amino acids
		Protein Function
		Protein Structure
		Enzyme Function
	2-12 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids
		Structure of Nucleic Acids
	2-13 ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells
	2-14 Chemicals form functional units called cells
	SPOTLIGHT Chemical Notation
	CLINICAL NOTE Too Sweet on Sugar?
	Chapter Review
3 Cell Structure and Function
	An Introduction to Cell Structure and Function
	3-1 The study of cells provides the foundation for understanding human physiology
		The Study of Cells
		An Overview of Cell Anatomy
	3-2 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs various functions
		Membrane Lipids
		Membrane Proteins
		Membrane Carbohydrates
	3-3 Diffusion is a passive transport process that assists membrane passage
		Diffusion
	3-4 Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport processes assist membrane passage
		Carrier-Mediated Transport
		Vesicular Transport
	3-5 Organelles within the cytoplasm perform specific functions
		The Cytosol
		The Organelles
	3-6 The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities
		Nuclear Structure and Contents
		Information Storage in the Nucleus
	3-7 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function
		Transcription
		Translation
	3-8 Stages of a cell’s life cycle include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis
		Interphase
		Mitosis
		Cytokinesis
	3-9 Tumors and cancers are characterized by abnormal cell growth and division
	3-10 Cellular differentiation is cellular specialization as a result of gene activation or repression
	SPOTLIGHT
		Anatomy of a Model Cell
		Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Inheritable Mitochondrial Disorders
		DNA Fingerprinting
		Mutations and Mosaicism
		Chapter Review
4 The Tissue Level of Organization
	An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization
	4-1 The four tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
	4-2 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities and tubular structures, and serves essential functions
		Functions of Epithelia
		Intercellular Connections
		The Epithelial Surface
		The Basement Membrane
		Epithelial Renewal and Repair
	4-3 Cell shape and number of layers determine the classification of epithelia
		Cell Layers
		Cell Shapes
		Classification of Epithelia
		Glandular Epithelia
	4-4 Connective tissue provides a protective structural framework for other tissue types
		Connective Tissue Proper
		Types of Connective Tissue Proper
		Fluid Connective Tissues
		Supporting Connective Tissues
	4-5 Tissue membranes are physical barriers of four types: mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial
		Mucous Membranes
		Serous Membranes
		The Cutaneous Membrane
		Synovial Membranes
	4-6 The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
		Skeletal Muscle Tissue
		Cardiac Muscle Tissue
		Smooth Muscle Tissue
	4-7 Nervous tissue responds to stimuli and propagates electrical impulses throughout the body
	4-8 The response to tissue injury involves inflammation and regeneration
	4-9 With advancing age, tissue repair declines and cancer rates increase
		Aging and Tissue Structure
		Aging and Cancer Rates
	SPOTLIGHT Inflammation and Regeneration
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Exfoliative Cytology
		Marfan Syndrome
		Adipose Tissue and Weight Control
		Cartilages and Joint Injuries
	Chapter Review
5 The Integumentary System
	An Introduction to the Integumentary System
	5-1 The epidermis is composed of strata (layers) with various functions
		Stratum Basale
		Intermediate Strata
		Stratum Corneum
	5-2 Epidermal pigmentation and dermal circulation influence skin color
		The Role of Pigmentation
		The Role of Dermal Circulation
	5-3 Sunlight has beneficial and detrimental effects on the skin
		The Epidermis and Vitamin D3
		Skin Cancers
	5-4 The dermis is the tissue layer that supports the epidermis
	5-5 The subcutaneous layer connects the dermis to underlying tissues
	5-6 Hair is composed of dead, keratinized cells that have been pushed to the skin surface
		The Structure of Hair and Hair Follicles
		Functions of Hair
		Hair Color
	5-7 Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine glands found in the skin
		Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
		Sweat Glands
	5-8 Nails are keratinized epidermal cells that protect the tips of fingers and toes
	5-9 After an injury, the integument is repaired in several phases
		Repair of Skin Injuries
		Effects of Burns
	5-10 Effects of aging include dermal thinning, wrinkling, and reduced melanocyte activity
	SPOTLIGHT The Epidermis
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Drug Administration Through The Skin
		Disorders of Keratin Production
		Dermatitis
		Hair Loss
		Burns
	Chapter Review
6 The Skeletal System
	An Introduction to the Skeletal System
	6-1 The skeletal system has five major functions
	6-2 Bones are classified according to shape and structure
		Macroscopic Features of Bone
		Microscopic Features of Bone
	6-3 Ossification and appositional growth are processes of bone formation and enlargement
		Intramembranous Ossification
		Endochondral Ossification
		Bone Growth and Body Proportions
		Requirements for Normal Bone Growth
	6-4 Bone growth and development depend on a balance between bone formation and resorption, and on calcium availability
		The Role of Remodeling in Support
		The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve
		Repair of Fractures
	6-5 Osteopenia has a widespread effect on aging skeletal tissue
	6-6 The bones of the skeleton are distinguished by bone markings and grouped into two skeletal divisions
		Bone Markings (Surface Features)
		Skeletal Divisions
	6-7 The bones of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage make up the axial skeleton
		The Skull
		The Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage
	6-8 The pectoral girdles and upper limb bones, and the pelvic girdle and lower limb bones, make up the appendicular skeleton
		The Pectoral Girdles
		The Upper Limb
		The Pelvic Girdle
		The Lower Limb
	6-9 Joints are categorized according to their range of motion or anatomical organization
		Immovable Joints (Synarthroses)
		Slightly Movable Joints (Amphiarthroses)
		Freely Movable Joints (Diarthroses)
	6-10 The structure and functions of synovial joints enable various skeletal movements
		Types of Movements at Synovial Joints
		Types of Synovial Joints
	6-11 Intervertebral joints and appendicular joints demonstrate functional differences in support and mobility
		Intervertebral Joints
		Joints of the Upper Limb
		Joints of the Lower Limb
	6-12 The skeletal system supports and stores energy and minerals for other body systems
	SPOTLIGHT Synovial Joints
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair
		Osteoporosis
		Rheumatism and Arthritis
		Hip Fractures
	Chapter Review
7 The Muscular System
	An Introduction to Muscle Tissue
	7-1 Skeletal muscle performs five primary functions
	7-2 A skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves
		Connective Tissue Organization
		Blood Vessels and Nerves
	7-3 Skeletal muscle fibers have distinctive features
		The Sarcolemma and Transverse Tubules
		Myofibrils
		The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
		Sarcomeres
	7-4 The nervous system and skeletal muscles communicate at neuromuscular junctions
		The Neuromuscular Junction
		The Contraction Cycle
	7-5 Sarcomere shortening and muscle fiber stimulation produce tension
		Frequency of Muscle Fiber Stimulation
		Number of Muscle Fibers Activated
		Isotonic and Isometric Contractions
		Muscle Elongation Following Contraction
	7-6 ATP is the energy source for muscle contraction
		ATP and CP Reserves
		ATP Generation
		Energy Use and the Level of Muscle Activity
		Muscle Fatigue
		The Recovery Period
	7-7 Muscle performance depends on muscle fiber type and physical conditioning
		Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
		Physical Conditioning
	7-8 Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues differ in structure and function from skeletal muscle tissue
		Cardiac Muscle Tissue
		Smooth Muscle Tissue
	7-9 Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal muscles
		Origins, Insertions, and Actions
		Names of Skeletal Muscles
	7-10 Axial muscles are muscles of the head and neck, vertebral column, trunk, and pelvic floor
		Muscles of the Head and Neck
		Muscles of the Spine
		The Axial Muscles of the Trunk
		Muscles of the Pelvic Floor
	7-11 Appendicular muscles are muscles of the shoulders, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs
		Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs
		Muscles of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
	7-12 The size and power of muscle tissue decrease with advancing age
	7-13 Exercise produces responses in multiple body systems
	SPOTLIGHTS
		Events at the Neuromuscular Junction
		The Contraction Cycle
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Interference at the NMJ and Muscular Paralysis
		Rigor Mortis
		Tetanus
		Hernias
		Intramuscular Injections
	Chapter Review
8 The Nervous System
	An Introduction to the Nervous System
	8-1 The nervous system has anatomical and functional divisions
	8-2 Neurons are specialized for intercellular communication and are supported by cells called neuroglia
		Neurons
		Neuroglia
		Organization of Neurons in the Nervous System
	8-3 In neurons, a change in the plasma membrane’s electrical potential may result in an action potential (nerve impulse)
		The Membrane Potential
		Propagation of an Action Potential
	8-4 At synapses, communication takes place among neurons or between neurons and other cells
		Structure of a Synapse
		Synaptic Function and Neurotransmitters
		Neuronal Pools
	8-5 The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by three layers of membranes called the meninges
		The Dura Mater
		The Arachnoid
		The Pia Mater
	8-6 The spinal cord contains gray matter surrounded by white matter and connects to 31 pairs of spinal nerves
		Gross Anatomy
		Sectional Anatomy
	8-7 The brain has several principal structures, each with specific functions
		The Major Regions of the Brain
		The Ventricles of the Brain
		The Cerebrum
		The Diencephalon
		The Midbrain
		The Pons
		The Cerebellum
		The Medulla Oblongata
	8-8 The PNS connects the CNS with the body’s external and internal environments
		The Cranial Nerves
		The Spinal Nerves
		Nerve Plexuses
	8-9 Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to stimuli
		Simple Reflexes
		Complex Reflexes
		Integration and Control of Spinal Reflexes
	8-10 Separate pathways carry sensory information and motor commands
		Sensory Pathways
		Motor Pathways
	8-11 The autonomic nervous system, composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, is involved in the unconscious regulation of body functions
		The Sympathetic Division
		The Parasympathetic Division
		Relationships between the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
	8-12 Aging produces various structural and functional changes in the nervous system
	8-13 The nervous system is closely integrated with other body systems
	SPOTLIGHTS
		The Generation of an Action Potential
		Propagation of an Action Potential
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Demyelination Disorders
		Epidural and Subdural Hemorrhages
		Spinal Cord Injuries
		Aphasia and Dyslexia
		Seizures
		Cerebral Palsy
		Alzheimer’s Disease
	Chapter Review
9 The General and Special Senses
	An Introduction to General and Special Senses
	9-1 Sensory receptors connect our internal and external environments with the nervous system
	9-2 General sensory receptors are classified by the type of stimulus that excites them
		Pain
		Temperature
		Touch, Pressure, and Position
		Chemical Detection
	9-3 Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves olfactory receptors responding to chemical stimuli
		The Olfactory Pathways
	9-4 Gustation, the sense of taste, involves taste receptors responding to chemical stimuli
		The Taste Pathways
	9-5 Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while accessory eye structures provide protection
		The Accessory Structures of the Eye
		The Eye
	9-6 Photoreceptors respond to light and change it into electrical signals essential to visual physiology
		Rods and Cones
		Photoreceptor Structure
		Photoreception
		The Visual Pathways
	9-7 Equilibrium sensations originate within the internal ear, while hearing involves the detection and interpretation of sound waves
		Anatomy of the Ear
		Equilibrium
		Hearing
	9-8 Aging is accompanied by a noticeable decline in the special senses
		Smell and Aging
		Taste and Aging
		Vision and Aging
		Equilibrium and Aging
		Hearing and Aging
	SPOTLIGHT Refractive Problems
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Cataracts
		Visual Acuity
		Night Blindness
		Hearing Deficits
	Chapter Review
10 The Endocrine System
	An Introduction to the Endocrine System
	10-1 Homeostasis is preserved through intercellular communication
	10-2 The endocrine system regulates physiological processes through the binding of hormones to receptors
		The Structure of Hormones
		Hormone Action
		The Secretion and Distribution of Hormones
		The Control of Endocrine Activity
	10-3 The bilobed pituitary gland is an endocrine organ that releases nine peptide hormones
		The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland
		The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland
	10-4 The thyroid gland synthesizes thyroid hormones that affect the rate of metabolism
		Thyroid Follicles and Thyroid Hormones
		The C Cells of the Thyroid Gland and Calcitonin
	10-5 The four parathyroid glands, embedded in the posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland, secrete parathyroid hormone to elevate blood calcium levels
	10-6 The adrenal glands, consisting of a cortex and a medulla, cap each kidney and secrete several hormones
		The Adrenal Cortex
		The Adrenal Medulla
	10-7 The pineal gland, attached to the third ventricle, secretes melatonin
	10-8 The endocrine pancreas produces insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood glucose levels
		Diabetes Mellitus
	10-9 Many organs have secondary endocrine functions
		The Intestines
		The Kidneys
		The Heart
		The Thymus
		The Gonads
		Adipose Tissue
	10-10 Hormones interact to produce coordinated physiological responses
		Hormones and Growth
		Hormones and Stress
		Hormones and Behavior
		Hormones and Aging
	10-11 Extensive integration occurs between the endocrine system and other body systems
	SPOTLIGHT The General Adaptation Syndrome
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Diabetes Insipidus
		Diabetes Mellitus
		Hormones and Athletic Performance
		Endocrine Disorders
	Chapter Review
11 The Cardiovascular System: Blood
	An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System
	11-1 Blood has several important functions and unique physical characteristics
		Composition of Blood
		Blood Collection and Analysis
	11-2 Plasma, the fluid portion of blood, contains significant quantities of plasma proteins
		Plasma Proteins
	11-3 Red blood cells, formed by erythropoiesis, contain hemoglobin that can be recycled
		Abundance of Red Blood Cells
		Structure of RBCs
		Hemoglobin Structure and Function
		RBC Life Span and Circulation
		RBC Formation
	11-4 The ABO blood types and Rh system are based on antigen–antibody responses
		Cross-Reactions in Transfusions
		Testing for Blood Compatibility
	11-5 The various types of white blood cells contribute to the body’s defenses
		WBC Circulation and Movement
		Types of WBCs
		The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Abundance
		WBC Formation
	11-6 Platelets, disc-shaped structures formed from megakaryocytes, function in the clotting process
	11-7 Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation
		Phases of Hemostasis
		The Clotting Process
		Clot Retraction and Removal
	SPOTLIGHT The Composition of Whole Blood
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Abnormal Hemoglobin
		Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
		Abnormal Hemostasis
	Chapter Review
12 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart 404
	The Heart’s Role in the Cardiovascular System
	12-1 The heart is a four-chambered organ, supplied by coronary circulation, that pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body
		The Surface Anatomy of the Heart
		The Heart Wall
		Internal Anatomy and Organization
	12-2 Contractile cells and the conducting system produce each heartbeat, and an electrocardiogram records the associated electrical events
		Contractile Cells
		The Conducting System
		The Electrocardiogram
	12-3 Events during a complete heartbeat make up a cardiac cycle
		Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
		Heart Sounds
	12-4 Heart dynamics examines the factors that affect cardiac output
		Blood Volume Reflexes
		Autonomic Innervation
		Hormones
	SPOTLIGHT The Heart: Internal Anatomy and Blood Flow
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Heart Valve Disorders
		Abnormal Conditions Affecting Cardiac Output
	Chapter Review
13 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
	An Introduction to Blood Vessels and Circulation
	13-1 Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins differ in size, structure, and function
		The Structure of Vessel Walls
		Arteries
		Capillaries
		Veins
	13-2 Pressure and resistance determine blood flow and affect rates of capillary exchange
		Factors Affecting Blood Flow
		Cardiovascular Pressures within the Systemic Circuit
	13-3 Cardiovascular regulation involves autoregulation, neural processes, and endocrine responses
		Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues
		Neural Control of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
		Hormones and Cardiovascular Regulation
	13-4 The cardiovascular system adapts to physiological stress
		Exercise and the Cardiovascular System
		The Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhage
	13-5 functional patterns
	13-6 In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood enters the lungs in arteries, and oxygenated blood leaves the lungs in veins
	13-7 The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to tissues other than the lungs’ exchange surfaces, and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium
		Systemic Arteries
		Systemic Veins
	13-8 Modifications of fetal and maternal cardiovascular systems promote the exchange of materials until birth
		Placental Blood Supply
		Fetal Circulation in the Heart and Great Vessels
		Circulatory Changes at Birth
	13-9 Aging affects the blood, heart, and blood vessels
	13-10 The cardiovascular system is both structurally and functionally linked to all other systems
	SPOTLIGHT Major Vessels of the Systemic Circuit
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Arteriosclerosis
		Capillary Dynamics and Blood Volume and Pressure
		Checking the Pulse and Blood Pressure
		Exercise, Cardiovascular Fitness, and Health
		Shock
	Chapter Review
14 The Lymphatic System and Immunity
	An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and Immunity
	14-1 Anatomical barriers and defense processes make up nonspecific defense, and lymphocytes provide specific defense
	14-2 Lymphatic vessels, lymphocytes, lymphoid tissues, and lymphoid organs function in body defenses
		Functions of the Lymphatic System
		Lymphatic Vessels
		Lymphocytes
		Lymphoid Tissues
		Lymphoid Organs
	14-3 Innate (nonspecific) defenses respond in a characteristic way regardless of the potential threat
		Physical Barriers
		Phagocytes
		Immune Surveillance
		Interferons
		The Complement System
		Inflammation
		Fever
	14-4 Adaptive (specific) defenses respond to specific threats and are either cell mediated or antibody mediated
		Forms of Immunity
		An Overview of Adaptive Immunity
	14-5 T cells play a role in starting and controlling adaptive immunity
		Antigen Presentation
		T Cell Activation
	14-6 B cells respond to antigens by producing specific antibodies
		B Cell Sensitization and Activation
		Antibody Structure
		Antibody Function
		Primary and Secondary Responses to Antigen Exposure
		Summary of the Immune Response
		Hormones of the Immune System
	14-7 Abnormal immune responses result in immune disorders
		Autoimmune Disorders
		Immunodeficiency Diseases
		Allergies
	14-8 The immune response diminishes as we age
	14-9 For all body systems, the lymphatic system provides defenses against infection and returns tissue fluid to the circulation
	SPOTLIGHT Origin and Distribution of Lymphocytes
	CLINICAL NOTES
		“Swollen Glands”
		Injury to the Spleen
		AIDS
		Stress and the Immune Response
		Manipulating the Immune Response
	Chapter Review
15 The Respiratory System
	An Introduction to the Respiratory System
	15-1 The respiratory system, composed of air-conducting and respiratory portions, has several basic functions
		Functions of the Respiratory System
		Structures of the Respiratory System
	15-2 The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles conduct air into the lungs
		The Nose
		The Pharynx
		The Larynx
		The Trachea
		The Bronchi
	15-3 The smallest bronchioles and the alveoli within the lungs make up the respiratory portion of the respiratory tract
		The Bronchioles
		The Blood Air Barrier
		The Lungs
		The Pleural Cavities
	15-4 External respiration and internal respiration allow gas exchange within the body
	15-5 Pulmonary ventilation—the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs—involves pressure changes and muscle movement
		Pressure and Airflow to the Lungs
		Compliance
		Modes of Breathing
		Lung Volumes and Capacities
	15-6 Gas exchange depends on the partial pressures of gases and the diffusion of molecules
		Mixed Gases and Partial Pressures
		Partial Pressures in the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits
	15-7 In gas transport, most oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin, whereas carbon dioxide is transported in three ways
		Oxygen Transport
		Carbon Dioxide Transport
	15-8 Neurons in the medulla oblongata and pons, along with respiratory reflexes, control respiration
		The Local Control of Respiration
		Control by the Respiratory Centers of the Brain
		The Reflex Control of Respiration
		Control by Higher Centers
		Respiratory Changes at Birth
	15-9 Respiratory performance declines with age
	15-10 The respiratory system provides oxygen to, and removes carbon dioxide from, other organ systems
	SPOTLIGHTS
		Pulmonary Ventilation
		The Control of Respiration
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Cystic Fibrosis
		Tracheal Blockage
		Pneumonia
		Tuberculosis
		Decompression Sickness
		Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
		Emphysema and Lung Cancer
	Chapter Review
16 The Digestive System
	An Introduction to the Digestive System
	16-1 The digestive system—the digestive tract and accessory organs—performs various food-processing functions
		Functions of the Digestive System
		Histological Organization of the Digestive Tract
		The Movement of Digestive Materials
	16-2 The oral cavity contains the tongue, salivary glands, and teeth, each with specific functions
		The Tongue
		Salivary Glands
		Teeth
	16-3 The pharynx is a passageway between the oral cavity and the esophagus
		The Pharynx
		The Esophagus
		Swallowing
	16-4 The J-shaped stomach receives food from the esophagus and aids in chemical and mechanical digestion
		The Gastric Wall
		The Regulation of Gastric Activity
		Digestion in the Stomach
	16-5 The small intestine chemically digests and absorbs nutrients
		The Intestinal Wall
		Intestinal Movements
		Intestinal Secretions
		Intestinal Hormones
		Digestion in the Small Intestine
	16-6 The pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are accessory organs that assist with chemical digestion in the small intestine
		The Pancreas
		The Liver
		The Gallbladder
	16-7 The large intestine is divided into three parts with regional specialization
		The Cecum
		The Colon
		The Rectum
		The Functions of the Large Intestine
	16-8 Chemical digestion is the alteration of food that allows the absorption and use of nutrients
		The Processing and Absorption of Nutrients
		Water and Electrolyte Absorption
		Absorption of Vitamins
	16-9 Many age-related changes affect digestion and absorption
	16-10 The digestive system is extensively integrated with other body systems
	SPOTLIGHTS
		Regulation of Gastric Activity
		Chemical Events in Digestion
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Gastritis and Peptic Ulcers
		Stomach Cancer
		Vomiting
		Pancreatitis
		Liver Disease
		Colorectal Cancer
		Diverticulosis
		Diarrhea and Constipation
		Lactose Intolerance
	Chapter Review
17 Metabolism and Energetics
	An Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism
	17-1 Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions in the body, and energetics refers to the flow and transformation of energy
	17-2 Carbohydrate metabolism involves glycolysis, ATP production, and gluconeogenesis
		Glycolysis
		Energy Production Within Mitochondria
		Energy Yield of Glycolysis and Cellular Respiration
		Gluconeogenesis (Glucose Synthesis)
		Alternate Catabolic Pathways
	17-3 Lipid metabolism involves lipolysis, beta-oxidation, and the transport and distribution of lipids as lipoproteins and free fatty acids
		Lipid Catabolism
		Lipids and Energy Production
		Lipid Synthesis
		Lipid Transport and Distribution
	17-4 Protein catabolism involves transamination and deamination, and protein synthesis involves amination and transamination
		Amino Acid Catabolism
		Amino Acids and Protein Synthesis
	17-5 Nucleic acid catabolism involves RNA, but not DNA
		RNA Catabolism
		Nucleic Acid Synthesis
	17-6 Adequate nutrition is necessary to prevent deficiency disorders and maintain homeostasis
		Food Groups and a Balanced Diet
		Minerals, Vitamins, and Water
		Diet and Disease
	17-7 Metabolic rate is the average caloric expenditure, and thermoregulation involves balancing heat-producing and heat-losing processes
		The Energy Content of Food
		Energy Expenditure: Metabolic Rate
		Thermoregulation
	17-8 Caloric needs decline with advancing age
	SPOTLIGHT Electron Transport Chain and ATP Formation
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Carbohydrate Loading
		Dietary Fats and Cholesterol
		Ketoacidosis
	Chapter Review
18 The Urinary System
	An Introduction to the Urinary System
	18-1 The urinary system—made up of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra—has three major functions
	18-2 The kidneys are highly vascular organs containing functional units called nephrons, which perform filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
		Superficial and Sectional Anatomy of the Kidneys
		The Blood Supply to the Kidneys
		The Nephron
	18-3 Different portions of the nephron form urine by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
		Nephron Processes
		Filtration at the Glomerulus
		Reabsorption and Secretion along the Renal Tubule
		Normal Urine
	18-4 Normal kidney function depends on a stable GFR
		The Local Regulation of Kidney Function
		The Hormonal Control of Kidney Function
	18-5 Urine is transported by the ureters, stored in the bladder, and eliminated through the urethra, aided by urinary reflexes
		The Ureters
		The Urinary Bladder
		The Urethra
		The Control of Urination
	18-6 Fluid balance, electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance are interrelated and essential to homeostasis
		The ECF and the ICF
	18-7 Blood pressure and osmosis are involved in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance
		Fluid Balance
		Electrolyte Balance
	18-8 In acid-base balance, regulation of hydrogen ions in body fluids involves buffer systems and compensation by respiratory and renal processes
		Acids in the Body
		Buffers and Buffer Systems
		Maintaining Acid-Base Balance
		Acid-Base Disorders
	18-9 Age-related changes affect kidney function and the control of urination
	18-10 The urinary system is one of several body systems involved in waste excretion
	SPOTLIGHT A Summary of Kidney Function
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Kidney Failure
		Urinary Tract Infections
		Incontinence
		Disturbances of Acid-Base Balance
	Chapter Review
19 The Reproductive System
	An Introduction to the Reproductive System
	19-1 Basic reproductive system structures are gonads, ducts, accessory glands and organs, and external genitalia
	19-2 Sperm formation (spermatogenesis) occurs in the testes, and hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes control male reproductive functions
		The Testes
		Spermatogenesis
		The Male Reproductive Tract
		The Accessory Glands
		The External Genitalia
		Hormones and Male Reproductive Function
	19-3 Ovum production (oogenesis) occurs in the ovaries, and hormones from the pituitary gland and ovaries control female reproductive functions
		The Ovaries
		The Uterine Tubes
		The Uterus
		The Vagina
		The External Genitalia
		The Mammary Glands
		Hormones and the Female Reproductive Cycle
	19-4 The autonomic nervous system influences male and female sexual function
		Male Sexual Function
		Female Sexual Function
	19-5 With age, decreasing levels of reproductive hormones cause functional changes
		Menopause
		The Male Climacteric
	19-6 The reproductive system secretes hormones affecting growth and metabolism of all body systems
	SPOTLIGHTS
		Regulation of Male Reproduction
		Regulation of Female Reproduction
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Cryptorchidism
		Prostatitis
		Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
		Amenorrhea
		Breast Cancer
		Infertility
		Sexually Transmitted Diseases
		Birth Control Strategies
	Chapter Review
20 Development and Inheritance
	An Introduction to Development and Inheritance
	20-1 Development is a continuous process that occurs from fertilization to maturity
	20-2 Fertilization—the fusion of a secondary oocyte and a sperm—forms a zygote
		An Overview of Fertilization
		Ovulation and Oocyte Activation
	20-3 Gestation consists of three stages of prenatal development: the first, second, and third trimesters
	20-4 Critical events of the first trimester are cleavage, implantation, placentation, and embryogenesis
		Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation
		Implantation
		Placentation
		Embryogenesis
	20-5 During the second and third trimesters, maternal organ systems support the developing fetus, and the uterus undergoes structural and functional changes
		The Effects of Pregnancy on Maternal Systems
		Structural and Functional Changes in the Uterus
	20-6 Labor consists of the dilation, expulsion, and placental stages
		The Stages of Labor
		Premature Labor
		Multiple Births
	20-7 Postnatal stages are the neonatal period, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and maturity, followed by senescence
		The Neonatal Period, Infancy, and Childhood
		Adolescence and Maturity
	20-8 Genes and chromosomes determine patterns of inheritance
		Patterns of Inheritance
		The Human Genome
	SPOTLIGHT Extra-Embryonic Membranes and Placenta Formation
	CLINICAL NOTES
		Abortion
		Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic Analysis
	Chapter Review
Answers Answers to Checkpoints and Review Questions
Appendix Normal Physiological Values
Glossary/Index
Credits
Common Abbreviations Used in Heath Science