Essentials of anatomy & physiology

Cover
Copyright Page
Text and Illustration Team
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
1. An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
	An Introduction to Studying the Human Body
		1-1. All Living Things Display Responsiveness, Growth, Reproduction, Movement, and Metabolism
		1-2. Anatomy is Structure, and Physiology is Function
		1-3. Levels of Organization Progress from Atoms and Molecules to a Complete Organism
		1-4. The Human Body Consists of 11 Organ Systems
		1-5. Homeostasis is the State of Internal Balance
		1-6. Negative Feedback Opposes Variations from Normal, Whereas Positive Feedback Exaggerates them
		1-7. Anatomical Terms Describe Body Regions, Anatomical Positions and Directions, and Body Sections
		1-8. Body Cavities of the Trunk Protect Internal Organs and Allow them to Change Shape
	Levels of Organization
	Homeostasis and Disease
	Imaging Techniques
	Chapter Review
2. The Chemical Level of Organization
	An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization
		2-1. Atoms are the Basic Particles of Matter
		2-2. Chemical Bonds are Forces Formed by Interactions Among Atoms
		2-3. Decomposition, Synthesis, and Exchange Reactions are Important Chemical Reactions in Physiology
		2-4. Enzymes Catalyze Specific Biochemical Reactions by Lowering a Reaction’s Activation Energy
		2-5. Inorganic Compounds Usually Lack Carbon, and Organic Compounds Always Contain Carbon
		2-6. Physiological Systems Depend on Water
		2-7. Body Fluid pH is Vital for Homeostasis
		2-8. Acids, Bases, and Salts have Important Physiological Roles
		2-9. Carbohydrates Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen in a 1:2:1 Ratio
		2-10. Lipids Contain a Carbon-To-Hydrogen Ratio of 1:2
		2-11. Proteins Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen and are Formed from Amino Acids
		2-12. DNA and RNA are Nucleic Acids
		2-13. ATP is a High-Energy Compound used by Cells
		2-14. Chemicals Form Functional Units Called Cells
	Chemical Notation
	Fatty Acids and Health
	Chapter Review
3. Cell Structure and Function
	An Introduction to Cell Structure and Function
		3-1. The Study of Cells Provides the Foundation for Understanding Human Physiology
		3-2. The Plasma Membrane Separates the Cell from its Surrounding Environment and Performs Various Functions
		3-3. Diffusion is a Passive Transport Process that Assists Membrane Passage
		3-4. Carrier-Mediated and Vesicular Transport Processes Assist Membrane Passage
		3-5. Organelles Within the Cytoplasm Perform Specific Functions
		3-6. The Nucleus Contains DNA and Enzymes Essential for Controlling Cellular Activities
		3-7. DNA Controls Protein Synthesis, Cell Structure, and Cell Function
		3-8. Stages of a Cell’s Life Cycle Include Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis
		3-9. Tumors and Cancers are Characterized by Abnormal Cell Growth and Division
		3-10. Differentiation is Cellular Specialization as a Result of Gene Activation or Repression
	Anatomy of a Model Cell
	Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging
	Inheritable Mitochondrial Disorders
	DNA Fingerprinting
	Mutations and Mosaicism
	Chapter Review
4. The Tissue Level of Organization
	An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization
		4-1. The Four Tissue Types are Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Neural
		4-2. Epithelial Tissue Covers Body Surfaces, Lines Cavities and Tubular Structures, and Serves Essential Functions
		4-3. Cell Shape and Number of Layers Determine the Classification of Epithelia
		4-4. Connective Tissue Provides a Protective Structural Framework for Other Tissue Types
		4-5. Tissue Membranes are Physical Barriers of Four Types: Mucous, Serous, Cutaneous, and Synovial
		4-6. The Three Types of Muscle Tissue are Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth
		4-7. Neural Tissue Responds to Stimuli and Propagates Electrical Impulses Throughout the Body
		4-8. The Response to Tissue Injury Involves Inflammation and Regeneration
		4-9. With Advancing Age, Tissue Repair Declines and Cancer Rates Increase
	Inflammation and Regeneration
	Exfoliative Cytology
	Marfan’s Syndrome
	Adipose Tissue and Weight Control
	Cartilages and Joint Injuries
	Chapter Review
5. The Integumentary System
	An Introduction to the Integumentary System
		5-1. The Epidermis is Composed of Strata (Layers) with Various Functions
		5-2. Factors Influencing Skin Color are Epidermal Pigmentation and Dermal Circulation
		5-3. Sunlight has Beneficial and Detrimental Effects on the Skin
		5-4. The Dermis is the Tissue Layer that Supports the Epidermis
		5-5. The Hypodermis Connects the Dermis to Underlying Tissues
		5-6. Hair is Composed of Dead, Keratinized Cells that have been Pushed to the Skin Surface
		5-7. Sebaceous Glands and Sweat Glands are Exocrine Glands Found in the Skin
		5-8. Nails are Keratinized Epidermal Cells that Protect the Tips of Fingers and Toes
		5-9. Several Steps are Involved in Repairing the Integument Following an Injury
		5-10. Effects of Aging Include Dermal Thinning, Wrinkling, and Reduced Melanocyte Activity
	The Epidermis
	Drug Administration through the Skin
	Disorders of Keratin Production
	Dermatitis
	Hair Loss
	Burns
	Chapter Review
6. The Skeletal System
	An Introduction to the Skeletal System
		6-1. The Skeletal System has Five Primary Functions
		6-2. Bones are Classified According to Shape and Structure
		6-3. Ossification and Appositional Growth are Processes of Bone Formation and Enlargement
		6-4. Bone Growth and Development Depend on a Balance Between Bone Formation and Resorption, and on Calcium Availability
		6-5. Osteopenia has a Widespread Effect on Aging Skeletal Tissue
		6-6. The Bones of the Skeleton are Distinguished by Bone Markings and Grouped into Two Skeletal Divisions
		6-7. The Bones of the Skull, Vertebral Column, and Thoracic Cage Make up the Axial Skeleton
		6-8. The Pectoral Girdles and Upper Limb Bones, and the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Bones, Make up the Appendicular Skeleton
		6-9. Joints are Categorized According to their Range of Motion or Anatomical Organization
		6-10. The Structure and Functions of Synovial Joints Enable Various Skeletal Movements
		6-11. Intervertebral Articulations and Appendicular Articulations Demonstrate Functional Differences in Support and Mobility
		6-12. The Skeletal System Supports and Stores Energy and Minerals for Other Body Systems
	Synovial Joints
	Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair
	Osteoporosis
	Rheumatism and Arthritis
	Hip Fractures
	Chapter Review
7. The Muscular System
	An Introduction to Muscle Tissue
		7-1. Skeletal Muscle Performs Five Primary Functions
		7-2. A Skeletal Muscle Contains Muscle Tissue, Connective Tissues, Blood Vessels, and Nerves
		7-3. Skeletal Muscle Fibers have Distinctive Features
		7-4. The Nervous System and Skeletal Muscles Communicate at Neuromuscular Junctions
		7-5. Sarcomere Shortening and Muscle Fiber Stimulation Produce Tension
		7-6. ATP is the Energy Source for Muscle Contraction
		7-7. Muscle Performance Depends on Muscle Fiber Type and Physical Conditioning
		7-8. Cardiac and Smooth Muscle Tissues Differ in Structure and Function from Skeletal Muscle Tissue
		7-9. Descriptive Terms are used to Name Skeletal Muscles
		7-10. Axial Muscles are Muscles of the Head and Neck, Vertebral Column, Trunk, and Pelvic Floor
		7-11. Appendicular Muscles are Muscles of the Shoulders, Upper Limbs, Pelvic Girdle, and Lower Limbs
		7-12. The Size and Power of Muscle Tissue Decrease with Advancing Age
		7-13. Exercise Produces Responses in Multiple Body Systems
	Events at the Neuromuscular Junction
	The Contraction Cycle
	Interference at the NMJ and Muscular Paralysis
	Rigor Mortis
	Tetanus
	Hernias
	Intramuscular Injections
	Chapter Review
8. The Nervous System
	An Introduction to the Nervous System
		8-1. The Nervous System has Anatomical and Functional Divisions
		8-2. Neurons are Specialized for Intercellular Communication and are Supported by Cells Called Neuroglia
		8-3. In Neurons, a Change in the Plasma Membrane’s Electrical Potential May Result in an Action Potential (Nerve Impulse)
		8-4. At Synapses, Communication Takes Place Among Neurons or Between Neurons and Other Cells
		8-5. The Brain and Spinal Cord are Surrounded by Three Layers of Membranes Called the Meninges
		8-6. The Spinal Cord Contains Gray Matter Surrounded by White Matter and Connects to 31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves
		8-7. The Brain has Several Principal Structures, Each with Specific Functions
		8-8. The PNS Connects the CNS with the Body’s External and Internal Environments
		8-9. Reflexes are Rapid, Automatic Responses to Stimuli
		8-10. Separate Pathways Carry Sensory Information and Motor Commands
		8-11. The Autonomic Nervous System, Composed of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions, is Involved in the Unconscious Regulation of Body Functions
		8-12. Aging Produces Various Structural and Functional Changes in the Nervous System
		8-13. The Nervous System is Closely Integrated with Other Body Systems
	The Generation of an Action Potential
	Propagation of an Action Potential
	Demyelination Disorders
	Epidural and Subdural Hemorrhages
	Spinal Cord Injuries
	Aphasia and Dyslexia
	Seizures
	Cerebral Palsy
	Alzheimer’s Disease
	Chapter Review
9. The General and Special Senses
	An Introduction to General and Special Senses
		9-1. Sensory Receptors Connect Our Internal and External Environments with the Nervous System
		9-2. General Sensory Receptors are Classified by the Type of Stimulus that Excites them
		9-3. Olfaction, the Sense of Smell, Involves Olfactory Receptors Responding to Chemical Stimuli
		9-4. Gustation, the Sense of Taste, Involves Taste Receptors Responding to Chemical Stimuli
		9-5. Internal Eye Structures Contribute to Vision, While Accessory Eye Structures Provide Protection
		9-6. Photoreceptors Respond to Light and Change it into Electrical Signals Essential to Visual Physiology
		9-7. Equilibrium Sensations Originate Within the Internal Ear, While Hearing Involves the Detection and Interpretation of Sound Waves
		9-8. Aging is Accompanied by a Noticeable Decline in the Special Senses
	Refractive Problems
	Cataracts
	Visual Acuity
	Night Blindness
	Hearing Deficits
	Chapter Review
10. The Endocrine System
	An Introduction to the Endocrine System
		10-1. Homeostasis is Preserved Through Intercellular Communication
		10-2. The Endocrine System Regulates Physiological Processes Through the Binding of Hormones to Receptors
		10-3. The Bilobed Pituitary Gland is an Endocrine Organ that Releases Nine Peptide Hormones
		10-4. The Thyroid Gland Lies Inferior to the Larynx and Requires Iodine for Hormone Synthesis
		10-5. The Four Parathyroid Glands, Embedded in the Posterior Surfaces of the Thyroid Gland, Secrete Parathyroid Hormone to Elevate Blood Calcium Levels
		10-6. The Adrenal Glands, Consisting of a Cortex and a Medulla, Cap Each Kidney and Secrete Several Hormones
		10-7. The Pineal Gland, Attached to the Third Ventricle, Secretes Melatonin
		10-8. The Endocrine Pancreas Produces Insulin and Glucagon, Hormones that Regulate Blood Glucose Levels
		10-9. Many Organs have Secondary Endocrine Functions
		10-10. Hormones Interact to Produce Coordinated Physiological Responses
		10-11. Extensive Integration Occurs Between the Endocrine System and Other Body Systems
	The General Adaptation Syndrome
	Diabetes Insipidus
	Diabetes Mellitus
	Hormones and Athletic Performance
	Endocrine Disorders
	Chapter Review
11. The Cardiovascular System: Blood
	An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System
		11-1. Blood has Several Important Functions and Unique Physical Characteristics
		11-2. Plasma, the Fluid Portion of Blood, Contains Significant Quantities of Plasma Proteins
		11-3. Red Blood Cells, Formed by Erythropoiesis, Contain Hemoglobin that Can Be Recycled
		11-4. The ABO Blood Types and Rh System are Based on Antigen–Antibody Responses
		11-5. The Various Types of White Blood Cells Contribute to the Body’s Defenses
		11-6. Platelets, Disc-Shaped Structures Formed from Megakaryocytes, Function in the Clotting Process
		11-7. Hemostasis Involves Vascular Spasm, Platelet Plug Formation, and Blood Coagulation
	The Composition of Whole Blood
	Abnormal Hemoglobin
	Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
	Abnormal Hemostasis
	Chapter Review
12. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
	The Heart’s Role in the Cardiovascular System
		12-1. The Heart is a Four-Chambered Organ, Supplied by Coronary Circulation, that Pumps Oxygen-Poor Blood to the Lungs and Oxygen-Rich Blood to the Rest of the Body
		12-2. Contractile Cells and the Conducting System Produce Each Heartbeat, and an Electrocardiogram Records the Associated Electrical Events
		12-3. Events During a Complete Heartbeat Make up a Cardiac Cycle
		12-4. Heart Dynamics Examines the Factors that Affect Cardiac Output
	The Heart: Internal Anatomy and Blood Flow
	Heart Valve Disorders
	Abnormal Conditions Affecting Cardiac  Output
	Chapter Review
13. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
	An Introduction to Blood Vessels and Circulation
		13-1. Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules, and Veins Differ in Size, Structure, and Function
		13-2. Pressure and Resistance Determine Blood Flow and Affect Rates of Capillary Exchange
		13-3. Cardiovascular Regulation Involves Autoregulation, Neural Processes, and Endocrine Responses
		13-4. The Cardiovascular System Adapts to Physiological Stress
		13-5. The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits of the Cardiovascular System Exhibit Three General Functional Patterns
		13-6. In the Pulmonary Circuit, Deoxygenated Blood Enters the Lungs in Arteries, and Oxygenated Blood Leaves the Lungs in Veins
		13-7. The Systemic Circuit Carries Oxygenated Blood from the Left Ventricle to Tissues Other Than the Lungs’ Exchange Surfaces, and Returns Deoxygenated Blood to the Right Atrium
		13-8. Modifications of Fetal and Maternal Cardiovascular Systems Promote the Exchange of Materials Until Birth
		13-9. Aging Affects the Blood, Heart, and Blood Vessels
		13-10. The Cardiovascular System is Both Structurally and Functionally Linked to all Other Systems
	Major Vessels of the Systemic Circuit
	Arteriosclerosis
	Capillary Dynamics and Blood Volume and  Pressure
	Checking the Pulse and Blood Pressure
	Exercise, Cardiovascular Fitness, and Health
	Shock
	Chapter Review
14. The Lymphatic System and Immunity
	An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and Immunity
		14-1. Anatomical Barriers and Defense Processes Make up Nonspecific Defense, and Lymphocytes Provide Specific Defense
		14-2. Lymphatic Vessels, Lymphocytes, Lymphoid Tissues, and Lymphoid Organs Function in Body Defenses
		14-3. Innate (Nonspecific) Defenses Respond in a Characteristic Way Regardless of the Potential Threat
		14-4. Adaptive (Specific) Defenses Respond to Specific Threats and are Either Cell Mediated or Antibody Mediated
		14-5. T Cells Play a Role in Starting and Controlling the Immune Response
		14-6. B Cells Respond to Antigens by Producing Specific Antibodies
		14-7. Abnormal Immune Responses Result in Immune Disorders
		14-8. The Immune Response Diminishes as we Age
		14-9. For all Body Systems, the Lymphatic System Provides Defenses Against Infection and Returns Tissue Fluid to the Circulation
	Origin and Distribution of Lymphocytes
	“Swollen Glands”
	Injury to the Spleen
	AIDS
	Stress and the Immune Response
	Manipulating the Immune Response
	Chapter Review
15. The Respiratory System
	An Introduction to the Respiratory System
		15-1. The Respiratory System, Composed of Air-Conducting and Respiratory Portions, has Several Basic Functions
		15-2. The Nose, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, and Larger Bronchioles Conduct Air into the Lungs
		15-3. The Smallest Bronchioles and the Alveoli Within the Lungs Make up the Respiratory Portion of the Respiratory Tract
		15-4. External Respiration and Internal Respiration Allow Gas Exchange Within the Body
		15-5. Pulmonary Ventilation—The Exchange of Air Between the Atmosphere and the Lungs—Involves Pressure Changes and Muscle Movement
		15-6. Gas Exchange Depends on the Partial Pressures of Gases and the Diffusion of Molecules
		15-7. Most O2 is Transported Bound to Hemoglobin (Hb), and CO2 is Dissolved in Plasma, Bound to Hb, or Transported as Bicarbonate Ion
		15-8. Neurons in the Medulla Oblongata and Pons, Along with Respiratory Reflexes, Control Respiration
		15-9. Respiratory Performance Declines with Age
		15-10. The Respiratory System Provides Oxygen to, and Removes Carbon Dioxide From, Other Organ Systems
	Pulmonary Ventilation
	The Control of Respiration
	Cystic Fibrosis
	Tracheal Blockage
	Pneumonia
	Tuberculosis
	Decompression Sickness
	Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
	Emphysema and Lung Cancer
	Chapter Review
16. The Digestive System
	An Introduction to the Digestive System
		16-1. The Digestive System—The Digestive Tract and Accessory Organs—Performs Various Food-Processing Functions
		16-2. The Oral Cavity Contains the Tongue, Salivary Glands, and Teeth, Each with Specific Functions
		16-3. The Pharynx is a Passageway Between the Oral Cavity and the Esophagus
		16-4. The J-Shaped Stomach Receives Food from the Esophagus and Aids in Chemical and Mechanical Digestion
		16-5. The Small Intestine Digests and Absorbs Nutrients
		16-6. The Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder are Accessory Organs that Assist with the Digestive Process in the Small Intestine
		16-7. The Large Intestine is Divided into Three Parts with Regional Specialization
		16-8. Digestion is the Chemical Alteration of Food that Allows the Absorption and use of Nutrients
		16-9. Many Age-Related Changes Affect Digestion and Absorption
		16-10. The Digestive System is Extensively Integrated with Other Body Systems
	Regulation of Gastric Activity
	Chemical Events in Digestion
	Gastritis and Peptic Ulcers
	Stomach Cancer
	Vomiting
	Pancreatitis
	Liver Disease
	Colorectal Cancer
	Diverticulosis
	Diarrhea and Constipation
	Lactose Intolerance
	Chapter Review
17. Metabolism and Energetics
	An Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism
		17-1. Metabolism Refers to all the Chemical Reactions in the Body, and Energetics Refers to the Flow and Transformation of Energy
		17-2. Carbohydrate Metabolism Involves Glycolysis, ATP Production, and Gluconeogenesis
		17-3. Lipid Metabolism Involves Lipolysis, Beta-Oxidation, and the Transport and Distribution of Lipids as Lipoproteins and Free Fatty Acids
		17-4. Protein Catabolism Involves Transamination and Deamination, and Protein Synthesis Involves Amination and Transamination
		17-5. Nucleic Acid Catabolism Involves RNA, but not DNA
		17-6. Adequate Nutrition is Necessary to Prevent Deficiency Disorders and Maintain Homeostasis
		17-7. Metabolic Rate is the Average Caloric Expenditure, and Thermoregulation Involves Balancing Heat-Producing and Heat-Losing Processes
		17-8. Caloric Needs Decline with Advancing Age
	Electron Transport System and ATP Formation
	Carbohydrate Loading
	Dietary Fats and Cholesterol
	Ketoacidosis
	Chapter Review
18. The Urinary System
	An Introduction to the Urinary System
		18-1. The Urinary System—Made up of the Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra—Has Three Major Functions
		18-2. The Kidneys are Highly Vascular Organs Containing Functional Units Called Nephrons, which Perform Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion
		18-3. Different Portions of the Nephron Form Urine by Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion
		18-4. Normal Kidney Function Depends on a Stable GFR
		18-5. Urine is Transported by the Ureters, Stored in the Bladder, and Eliminated Through the Urethra, Aided by the Micturition Reflex
		18-6. Fluid Balance, Electrolyte Balance, and Acid-Base Balance are Interrelated and Essential to Homeostasis
		18-7. Blood Pressure and Osmosis are Involved in Maintaining Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
		18-8. In Acid-Base Balance, Regulation of Hydrogen Ions in Body Fluids Involves Buffer Systems and Compensation by Respiratory and Renal Processes
		18-9. Age-Related Changes Affect Kidney Function and the Micturition Reflex
		18-10. The Urinary System is One of Several Body Systems Involved in Waste Excretion
	A Summary of Kidney Function
	Kidney Failure
	Urinary Tract Infections
	Incontinence
	Disturbances of Acid-Base Balance
	Chapter Review
19. The Reproductive System
	An Introduction to the Reproductive System
		19-1. Basic Reproductive System Structures are Gonads, Ducts, Accessory Glands and Organs, and External Genitalia
		19-2. Sperm Formation (Spermatogenesis) Occurs in the Testes, and Hormones from the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, and Testes Control Male Reproductive Functions
		19-3. Ovum Production (Oogenesis) Occurs in the Ovaries, and Hormones from the Pituitary Gland and Ovaries Control Female Reproductive Functions
		19-4. The Autonomic Nervous System Influences Male and Female Sexual Function
		19-5. With Age, Decreasing Levels of Reproductive Hormones Cause Functional Changes
		19-6. The Reproductive System Secretes Hormones Affecting Growth and Metabolism of all Body Systems
	Regulation of Male Reproduction
	Regulation of Female Reproduction
	Cryptorchidism
	Prostatitis
	Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
	Amenorrhea
	Breast Cancer
	Infertility
	Sexually Transmitted Diseases
	Birth Control Strategies
	Chapter Review
20. Development and Inheritance
	An Introduction to Development and Inheritance
		20-1. Development is a Continuous Process that Occurs from Fertilization to Maturity
		20-2. Fertilization—The Fusion of a Secondary Oocyte and a Spermatozoon—Forms a Zygote
		20-3. Gestation Consists of Three Stages of Prenatal Development: The First, Second, and Third Trimesters
		20-4. Critical Events of the First Trimester are Cleavage, Implantation, Placentation, and Embryogenesis
		20-5. During the Second and Third Trimesters, Maternal Organ Systems Support the Developing Fetus, and the Uterus Undergoes Structural and Functional Changes
		20-6. Labor Consists of the Dilation, Expulsion, and Placental Stages
		20-7. Postnatal Stages are the Neonatal Period, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, and Maturity, Followed by Senescence
		20-8. Genes and Chromosomes Determine Patterns of Inheritance
	Extraembryonic Membranes and Placenta  Formation
	Abortion
	Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic  Analysis
	Chapter Review
Answers Answers to Checkpoint and Chapter Review Questions
Appendix Normal Physiological Values
Glossary/Index
Photo and Illustration Credits
Common Abbreviations Used in Health Science
Foreign Word Roots, Prefixes, Suffixes, and Combining Forms
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