Esophageal Disease and the Role of the Microbiome

Front Cover
Esophageal Disease and the Role of the Microbiome
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Introduction
Chapter 1: Is acid the cornerstone factor in gastroesophageal reflux disease and its related complications?
	Introduction-A brief history of gastric acid
	Evidence that acid causes esophageal injury
	Acid and heartburn
	Bile acids, esophageal injury, and heartburn
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	Conflict of interest disclosures
	References
Chapter 2: Cytokines and immune modulators-Effects on esophageal inflammation
	Introduction
	Esophageal mucosal defense systems
	Immune-mediated response in animal models and humans with acute reflux esophagitis
	Cytokines: Initiators of the immune-mediated response in acute reflux esophagitis
	Cytokines: Initiators of epithelial repair responses in acute reflux esophagitis
	Cytokines: Potential disruptors of the physical epithelial barrier in acute reflux esophagitis
	Hypoxia-inducible factor-2α: Central role in the squamous cell cytokine response in acute reflux esophagitis
	Role of the immune system in reflux esophagitis
	Esophageal innate immunity and toll-like receptors
	Activation of the innate immune system during reflux esophagitis
	TLR2 signaling in esophageal squamous mucosa
	TLR4 signaling in esophageal squamous mucosa
	Esophageal adaptive immunity and T cell phenotypes
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	COI disclosures
	References
Chapter 3: Acid suppression and effects on the gastrointestinal microbiome
	Introduction
	Animal studies
	Human studies
		Salivary microbiome
		Esophageal microbiome
		Gastric microbiome
		Small and large bowel
		Fecal microbiome studies
		Limitations of currently available data
	Disease associations
	Summary
	Future priorities
	References
Chapter 4: Esophageal dysbiosis and pathogenesis of gastroesophageal reflux disease
	Introduction
	Traditional view of GERD progression
		Anatomic factors
		Nonanatomic factors
	Revised mechanism for GERD pathogenesis
	Microbiome changes
		Overall composition
		Microgeographic changes
		Biofilm
		Intestinal microbiome
	Inflammatory pathway
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	Author contributions
	References
Chapter 5: Gastroesophageal reflux disease and the role of Helicobacter pylori
	Introduction
	Pathogenesis of GERD
	Biologic links/plausibility
	Epidemiology/outcomes
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	Conflict of interest disclosure
	References
Chapter 6: Esophageal dysbiosis and neoplasia: Moving from Barrett's esophagus to adenocarcinoma
	Introduction
	Development of microbiome research contributes to a new concept of health and disease
	Risk and environmental factors altering the risk of EAC-progression
	Microbial alterations in the esophagus linked to histopathological changes
	Microbes influencing BE- and EAC-pathogenesis
	Esophageal microbiome: current techniques of sampling and analysis need to be improved
	Conclusion
	Future directions
	COI disclosures
	References
Chapter 7: Esophageal dysbiosis and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
	Introduction
	Esophageal dysbiosis in Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
		P. gingivalis
		F. nucleatum
	Esophageal microbiome: Environmental exposures and carcinogen metabolism
	Oral microbiome, Oral health, and Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
	Role of the gastric microenvironment in Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
	Limitations of current research
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	COI disclosures
	References
Chapter 8: Esophageal dysbiosis and eosinophilic esophagitis-Bacteria to blame?
	Introduction
	Normal esophageal microbiome
	Potential modulators of the Esophageal microbiome in eosinophilic esophagitis
	Sampling methods used to study the microbiome in EoE
	EoE microbiome
	Data summary and pathophysiologic significance
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	COI
	References
Chapter 9: Laryngopharyngeal reflux and dysbiosis
	Introduction-The gut microbiota and its influence
	Mechanisms for defense against laryngopharyngeal reflux
	Diagnosis of LPR
	Lifestyle factors
	Hypersensitivity
	Acid and nonacid esophageal reflux
	Esophageal and gastric adenocarcinoma
	Microbiota and bacterial overgrowth
	Treatment and proton pump inhibitors
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	COI and disclosures
	References
Chapter 10: Esophageal dysbiosis and esophageal motility disorders
	Introduction
	Achalasia
	Chagas disease and megaesophagus
	Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) in the setting of achalasia
	Esophageal hypermotility disorders
	Esophageal hypomotility disorders
	Future research
	Conflicts of interest
	References
Chapter 11: Gastrointestinal microbiome: Evaluation of testing technologies
	Bacteria in the foregut: From assumed sterility to the exploration of complex microbial communities
	Culture-dependent identification of microbial communities
	Culture-independent methods of studying the microbiome
		Sampling and nucleic acid isolation
		Capturing the microbial genome
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	Conflict of interest disclosures
	References
Chapter 12: Esophagogastric microbiome-Internal and external influences effecting variance
	Introduction
	Internal factors (Fig. 1)
		Age
	Oral and dental health
	Obesity
	External factors (Fig. 2)
		Diet
	Antibiotics
	Prebiotics and probiotics
	Proton pump inhibitors
	Tobacco and alcohol
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	Author contributions
	Conflict of interest
	References
Chapter 13: Esophageal dysbiosis-Correcting the paradox: Prebiotics, probiotics, or antibiotics?
	Introduction
	Prebiotics
	Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), Barrett's esophagus (BE), and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC)
	Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE)
	Limitations to the use and study of prebiotics
	Probiotics
	Gastroesophageal reflux disease
	Barrett's esophagus
	Cancer
	Candidiasis
	Eosinophilic esophagitis
	Antibiotics
	Bacteriocins
	Conclusions
	Future directions
	Author contributions
	References
Index
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