Equality for Women: Where Do We Stand On Millennium Development Goal 3?

Contents......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 12
Contributors......Page 14
Foreword......Page 16
Abbreviations......Page 18
1 Introduction, Overview, and Future Policy Agenda......Page 20
2 The State of World Progress, 1990–2007......Page 52
3 Indicators and Indexes of Gender Equality: What Do They Measure and What Do They Miss?......Page 112
4 Monitoring Progress in Gender Equality in the Labor Market......Page 166
5 The Financial Requirements of Achieving Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment......Page 226
6 What Money Can’t Buy: Getting Implementation Right for MDG3 in South Asia......Page 280
7 Policy Interventions to Meet the MDG3 Challenge in Developing Countries: Experiences from Mexico......Page 312
8 Gender Mainstreaming: Making It Happen......Page 330
Index......Page 356
Box 1.1 Legal Reforms to Promote Gender Equality......Page 34
Box 1.2 Sources of ODA to Promote Gender Equality......Page 45
Box 2.1 Fragile States and MDG3......Page 71
Box 3.1 Gender Differences in the Structure of Employment......Page 125
Box 4.1 The Mis-Measured Female Worker......Page 172
Box 5.1 Seven Strategic Priorities for Action on MDG3......Page 230
Box 5.2 Costing the MDGs: An Overview of Different Approaches......Page 231
Box 5.3 Interventions to Achieve MDG3 Not Included in an MDG Sector......Page 238
Box 5.4 Gender Mainstreaming Interventions......Page 239
Box 6.1 Bangladesh through the Eyes of Youth: Improving Educational Outcomes Further......Page 292
Box 8.1 Factors Contributing to Effective Gender Mainstreaming in a Violence Prevention Initiative at the Inter-American Development Bank......Page 338
Box 8.2 Factors Contributing to Effective Gender Mainstreaming in NGOs and Projects in Africa......Page 340
Box 8.3 How a Gender Action Plan Can Deliver Gender-Equality Results: Lessons from the Asian Development Bank’s Loan Operations......Page 341
Figure 1.1 Women’s Earnings, Children’s Well-Being, and Aggregate Poverty Reduction and Economic Growth: The Pathways......Page 24
Figure 1.2 Progress in Official Indicators of Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment, by Region, 1990–2005......Page 30
Figure 2.1 Population-Weighted Girls’ Enrollment Rates and Girls’-to-Boys’ Enrollment Ratios by Region, 1990 and 2006......Page 58
Figure 2.2 Population-Weighted Ratio of Literate Females to Males among 15- to 24-Year-Olds by Region, 1990 and 2006......Page 60
Figure 2.3 Populated-Weighted Rates of Primary School Completion for Girls by Region, 1990 and 2006......Page 61
Figure 2.4 Country Rank in Primary Enrollment Ratio against Country Rank in Primary Completion Ratio......Page 62
Figure 2.5 Girls’-to-Boys’ Primary Completion Ratio Versus Primary Enrollment, 2006 or Most Recent Year......Page 63
Figure 2.6 School-to-Work Transition, 1995–2004......Page 64
Figure 2.7 Under-Five Mortality Rate for Boys and Girls, 2000–05......Page 67
Figure 2.8 Percentage of 15- to 19-Year-Old Girls Who Are Mothers or Pregnant, 1990–2000 and 2001–06......Page 68
Figure 2.9 Percentage of Contraceptive Use by Region and Type of Contraceptive......Page 69
Figure 2.10 Population-Weighted Share of Women in Nonagricultural Wage Employment by Region, 1990 and 2006......Page 73
Figure 2.11 Population-Weighted Female Labor Force Participation by Region for Ages 20–24 and 25–49, 1991 and 2007......Page 76
Figure 2.12 Population-Weighted Female Labor Force Participation Rates for Age Group 25–49 by Country, 1991 and 2007......Page 78
Figure 2.13 Population-Weighted Ratio of Female-to-Male Hourly Wages by Region and Sector, 2006......Page 80
Figure 2.14 Female-to-Male Hourly Wage Ratios in Latin America and the Caribbean over Time and by Sector, 1991 and 2006......Page 82
Figure 2.15 Population-Weighted Share of Women in Nonagricultural Wage Employment Versus Female Labor Force Participation......Page 83
Figure 2.16 Share of Women in Nonagricultural Wage Employment Versus Ratio of Female to Male Hourly Earnings in Secondary and Tertiary Sectors......Page 84
Figure 2.17 Population-Weighted Percentage of Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments, 1990 and 2006......Page 86
Figure 2.18 Comparison of Relative Country Performance on Official MDG3 Indicators with Selected New Indicators......Page 89
Figure 2.19 Countries’ Relative Performance on the Official MDG3 Indicators Compared with Other Countries in the Same Region......Page 91
Figure 2.20 Intraregional Comparison of High and Low Performers for New Indicators......Page 93
Figure 2A.1 High and Low Performers for Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary Enrollment......Page 99
Figure 2A.2 High and Low Performers for Ratio of Girls to Boys in Secondary Enrollment......Page 100
Figure 2A.3 High and Low Performers for Ratio of Girls to Boys in Tertiary Enrollment......Page 101
Figure 2A.4 High and Low Performers for Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary School Completion......Page 102
Figure 2A.5 High and Low Performers for Female Under-Five Mortality......Page 103
Figure 2A.6 High and Low Performers for Share of Women in Nonagricultural Wage Employment......Page 104
Figure 2A.7 High and Low Performers for Female Labor Force Participation among 25- to 49-Year-Olds......Page 105
Figure 2A.8 High and Low Performers for Percentage of Seats Occupied by Women in National Parliaments......Page 106
Figure 4C.1 Gender Parity in Secondary and Tertiary Education......Page 221
Figure 4C.2 Female-to-Male Ratio, Gross Enrollment Rates in Education: Middle East and North Africa......Page 222
Figure 5C.1 Bangladesh: Cost of Gender-Equality-Promoting Interventions as a Portion of Total Costs of Achieving the MDGs, 2006–15......Page 265
Figure 5C.2 Cambodia: Cost of Gender-Equality-Promoting Interventions as a Portion of Total Costs of Achieving the MDGs, 2006–15......Page 267
Figure 5C.3 Ghana: Cost of Gender-Equality-Promoting Interventions as a Portion of Total Costs of Achieving the MDGs, 2006–15......Page 269
Figure 5C.4 Tanzania: Cost of Gender-Equality-Promoting Interventions as a Portion of Total Costs of Achieving the MDGs, 2006–15......Page 271
Figure 5C.5 Uganda: Cost of Gender-Equality-Promoting Interventions as a Portion of Total Costs of Achieving the MDGs, 2006–15......Page 273
Figure 6.1 India: Doctor Absence at Public Health Facilities by State and Reason, 2003......Page 287
Figure 6.2 India: Teacher Engagement by State......Page 289
Figure 6.3 Orissa: Change in Postprimary Education by Caste and Gender, 1983–2004/05......Page 291
Figure 6.4 India: Elected Women Members in Local Governments Enhance Women’s Voice......Page 299
Figure 6.5 Bangladeshi and Pakistani Women Are Usually Consulted in Matters Related to the Home but Not Necessarily in Decisions about Their Own Lives......Page 302
Figure 6.6 Perceptions of Safety among Pakistani and Bangladeshi Women......Page 304
Figure 7.1 Gender-Targeted Conditional Cash Transfer Program......Page 319
Table 1.1 Projected Average Annual per Capita Financial Requirements to Achieve Gender Equality, 2006–15......Page 40
Table 1.2 Planned per Capita MDG Expenditures for Gender Interventions Versus Actual Reported National Budget Allocations Disaggregated by Gender, FY2006......Page 42
Table 1.3 Donor Disbursements for Gender-Specific and Gender-Mainstreaming Interventions: Percentage of Total Gross Disbursements and per Capita Amounts......Page 43
Table 2.1 Official MDG3 Indicators and Recommended Additional Indicators......Page 56
Table 2.2 High and Low Performers for Official and New Indicators......Page 95
Table 4.1 World Value of Duncan Index (Gender Employment Segregation)......Page 169
Table 4.2 Value of Duncan Index by Region......Page 170
Table 4.3 Relative (Female-to-Male) Wages by Region......Page 174
Table 4.4 Effects of Eliminating Gender Differences in Pay and Employment......Page 179
Table 4.5 Three Scenarios of Simulated Changes in Female and Male Wages and GDP under Conditions of Equality......Page 180
Table 4A.1 Share of Women in Employment by Type of Employment......Page 184
Table 4A.2 All Workers, Country Duncan Values for Industrial Employment Based on ISIC68......Page 187
Table 4A.3 All Workers, Country Duncan Values for Industrial Employment Based on ISIC90......Page 191
Table 4A.4 All Workers, Country Duncan Values for Occupation Employment Based on ISCO68......Page 197
Table 4A.5 All Workers, Country Duncan Values for Occupational Employment Based on ISCO88......Page 200
Table 4A.6 Employees Only, Country Duncan Values for Industrial Employment Based on ISIC68......Page 206
Table 4A.7 Employees Only, Country Duncan Values for Industrial Employment Based on ISIC90......Page 210
Table 4A.8 Relative (Female-to-Male) Wages by Country......Page 214
Table 4A.9 Three Scenarios of Simulated Changes in Female and Male Wages and GDP under Conditions of Equality......Page 217
Table 4B.1 ISIC Categorization of Economic Activities......Page 219
Table 4B.2 Occupational Categories......Page 220
Table 5.1 Average Annual per Capita Costs of Achieving Gender Equality......Page 242
Table 5.2 Annual Costs of Mainstreamed Gender-Equality-Promoting Interventions......Page 244
Table 5.3 Average Annual per Capita MDG Costs and Financing Gaps......Page 248
Table 5.4 Gender Costs as a Percentage of Total MDG Costs Averaged across Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ghana, Tanzania, and Uganda......Page 249
Table 5.5 Total Gender Costs and Source of Financing for Low-Income Countries......Page 251
Table 5A.1 Average Alphas from 2006 through 2015 for Each MDG Sector......Page 259
Table 5C.1 Bangladesh: Per Capita Costs of Achieving Gender Equality......Page 264
Table 5C.2 Cambodia: Per Capita Costs of Achieving Gender Equality......Page 266
Table 5C.3 Ghana: Per Capita Costs of Achieving Gender Equality......Page 268
Table 5C.4 Tanzania: Per Capita Costs of Achieving Gender Equality......Page 270
Table 5C.5 Uganda: Per Capita Costs of Achieving Gender Equality......Page 272
Table 6.1 South Asia: Expenditures on Health, 2003......Page 283
Table 6.2 Nepal: Proportion of Health Allocations by Expenditure Category......Page 284
Table 6.3 Pace of Decline in Infant Mortality over Half a Century......Page 285
Table 6.4 South Asia: Select Education Expenditures and Outcomes, 2003......Page 288
Table 6.5 India: Performance of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, 2007......Page 295
Table 6A.1 Female Secondary Education in Low-Income Countries, 2000......Page 307