Environmental Toxicology

Half-title......Page 3
Series-title......Page 5
Title......Page 7
Copyright......Page 8
Dedication......Page 9
Contents......Page 11
Foreword......Page 19
Preface......Page 21
Abbreviations......Page 23
Acknowledgements......Page 27
1.1 The context......Page 29
1.2 The historical background: Classical toxicology, ecotoxicology, and environmental toxicology......Page 30
1.3 Social aspects: The environmental movement......Page 33
1.4 Social aspects: Regulation......Page 37
1.6 The role of technology......Page 44
1.7 Questions......Page 46
1.8 References......Page 47
1.9 Further reading......Page 48
2.1.2 An evolutionary perspective on environmental toxicology......Page 49
2.2 Assessment of toxicity......Page 52
2.2.1 The dose-response......Page 53
2.2.3 Subacute (chronic) toxicity assays......Page 59
2.2.4 The relationship between acute and chronic toxicity......Page 61
2.2.5 Statistical considerations......Page 66
TIME RESPONSE (TIME-TO-DEATH) MODELS......Page 69
2.2.6 Comparative bioassays......Page 71
2.2.7 Sediment toxicity assays......Page 77
2.3 Toxicity at the molecular level......Page 78
DNA LESIONS......Page 80
MUTAGENESIS......Page 81
2.3.2 Genotoxicity assays......Page 86
2.3.4 The concept of threshold toxicity......Page 87
2.3.6 Receptors......Page 89
2.4 Questions......Page 93
2.5 References......Page 94
3.1 General considerations......Page 98
3.2 Route of toxicant uptake......Page 99
3.2.1 Skin......Page 100
3.2.2 Lungs......Page 101
3.2.3 Gills......Page 102
3.2.4 Digestive system......Page 104
3.2.5 Toxicant uptake by plants......Page 105
3.3 Uptake at the tissue and cellular level......Page 106
COMPARTMENTAL MODELS......Page 108
3.3.2 Single-compartment model......Page 109
3.3.3 Two-compartment model......Page 111
3.3.4 Volume of distribution......Page 114
3.3.5 Transporter-mediated transport......Page 115
3.3.6 Lethal body burden (critical body residue)......Page 118
SAMPLE PROBLEMS......Page 121
3.4 Questions......Page 122
3.5 References......Page 123
3.6 Further reading......Page 124
4.1 Introduction......Page 125
4.2 The general concepts and principles for biological indicators......Page 128
4.3.1 Some conundrums related to tolerance in the context of environmental assessment......Page 134
4.3.2 Selection for tolerance, mechanisms of tolerance, and potential practical applications of the phenomenon......Page 137
MECHANISMS OF TOLERANCE......Page 141
4.4 Biological scale......Page 144
4.4.1 Principles and properties of biochemical markers/biochemical indicators......Page 145
4.4.2 Some of the more commonly used groups of biochemical markers......Page 147
MONOOXYGENASE (MIXED FUNCTION OXIDASE) ENZYME......Page 148
PHASE II (CONJUGATIVE) ENZYMES (GLUTATHIONE TRANSFERASE)......Page 149
METALLOTHIONEINS......Page 150
STRESS PROTEINS......Page 151
TISSUE PATHOLOGY......Page 153
SCOPE FOR GROWTH......Page 154
INDICATORS......Page 155
MONITORS......Page 160
4.4.4 Surrogates for ecosystem indicators......Page 170
4.5.1 Interspecies effects of toxic substances......Page 171
4.5.2 Interaction between and among trophic levels as affected by toxic substances......Page 174
4.5.3 Population and community end-points......Page 175
POPULATION-BASED END-POINTS......Page 176
COMMUNITY INDICES......Page 178
4.5.4 Ecosystem equilibrium. Fact or fiction?......Page 186
4.6.1 The concepts of modelling......Page 188
4.6.2 Mass balance models......Page 192
1. THE NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MEDIA: EVALUATIVE ENVIRONMENTS......Page 194
2. THE STEADY-STATE MASS BALANCE MODEL......Page 197
EFFECTS MODELLING......Page 199
4.6.3 Some other models for use in environmental toxicology......Page 200
4.6.4 Advantages, limitations, and pitfalls in the modelling for environmental toxicology......Page 201
4.7 Examples of methods and approaches for community or higher level responses......Page 202
MESOCOSMS......Page 203
MICROCOSMS......Page 205
4.7.2 Whole system manipulations......Page 206
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY......Page 211
THE COMPUTER......Page 213
CHOICE OF TEST ORGANISMS OR SYSTEMS......Page 214
Case Study 4.1. Benthic invertebrate communities in metal-contaminated sites exceeding criteria for acceptable sediment…......Page 218
Conclusions......Page 219
Chemical effects......Page 221
Morphology......Page 224
Case Study 4.4. Phytotoxicology assessment for Nanticoke Generating Station: Biological indicators and monitors of air…......Page 225
Forage plants......Page 227
The annual indicator plot programme......Page 228
Case Study 4.5. Chesapeake Bay: A study of eutrophication and complex trophic interactions......Page 229
Case Study 4.6. The use of lentic mesocosms in toxicity testing......Page 230
Case Study 4.7. The cadmium spike experiment, Experimental Lakes Area......Page 231
4.11 Questions......Page 235
4.12 References......Page 237
4.13 Further reading......Page 245
5.1 Introduction......Page 246
5.2.1 Taxonomic group......Page 247
5.3.1 Temperature......Page 249
5.3.2 pH and alkalinity......Page 252
5.3.3 Salinity......Page 255
5.3.4 Hardness......Page 257
5.3.5 Chemical mixtures......Page 258
5.3.6 Dissolved organic carbon......Page 262
5.4 Role of particulates......Page 264
5.4.1 The importance of food......Page 267
5.6 Implications for future environmental regulation......Page 270
5.7 Questions......Page 272
5.8 References......Page 273
5.9 Further reading......Page 276
6.1 Introduction......Page 277
6.2.1 General properties of metals and metalloids......Page 281
6.2.2 The mobilisation, binding, and chemical forms of metals in the environment......Page 282
6.2.3 The biological availability of metals in the environment......Page 284
RECENT TECHNICAL ADVANCES FOR DETERMINING METAL SPECIES......Page 290
BIOLOGICAL ASSAYS FOR MEASURING THE AVAILABILITY OF METALS......Page 293
MEASUREMENTS OF METAL CONTENT OR UPTAKE IN LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE FIELD......Page 294
6.2.6 Bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification of metals in the environment......Page 295
6.3.1 Analytical chemistry......Page 297
6.3.2 Historical records......Page 298
6.3.3 Spatial records and source signatures......Page 299
6.4.1 The background to environmental concerns for mercury......Page 302
6.4.2 The properties, occurrence, and environmental behaviour of mercury......Page 303
6.4.3 The toxicity of mercury and populations at risk......Page 310
6.5.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of lead......Page 315
6.5.2 The environmental transport and behaviour of lead......Page 318
HUMAN HEALTH......Page 319
OTHER BIOTA......Page 324
6.6.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of cadmium......Page 326
6.6.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of cadmium......Page 327
6.6.3 The toxicity of cadmium......Page 328
6.7.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of copper......Page 329
6.7.3 The toxicity of copper......Page 330
6.8.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of nickel......Page 332
6.8.3 The toxicity of nickel......Page 333
6.9.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of selenium......Page 334
6.9.3 The toxicity of selenium......Page 335
6.10.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of phosphorus......Page 336
PLANTS......Page 341
ANIMALS......Page 342
6.12 Questions......Page 343
6.13 References......Page 344
Appendix: Properties of selected metals and metalloids......Page 347
1. Aluminium......Page 348
2. Arsenic......Page 350
3. Cadmium......Page 352
4. Chromium......Page 354
5. Copper......Page 356
6. Iron......Page 358
7. Lead......Page 360
8. Manganese......Page 362
9. Mercury......Page 364
10. Nickel......Page 366
11. Selenium......Page 369
12. Silver......Page 371
13. Vanadium......Page 372
14. Zinc......Page 374
7.1 The nature of organic compounds......Page 377
7.1.1 Behaviour and transport......Page 381
7.2 Pesticides......Page 383
DDT......Page 384
CYCLODIENES......Page 385
HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE......Page 386
PYRETHROIDS......Page 387
7.2.2 Organophosphate pesticides......Page 389
7.2.3 Carbamate pesticides......Page 390
7.2.4 Phenoxyacid herbicides......Page 391
7.2.6 Triazine herbicides......Page 393
7.3.1 Chemistry and effects......Page 394
7.3.2 Evidence of decline in environmental PCBs......Page 397
7.4 Dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans......Page 398
7.5.2 Proposed mechanism for the action of estrogenic compounds......Page 400
7.5.3 Effect of organic chemicals on male reproductive health......Page 403
7.5.4 Environmental influences on breast cancer......Page 404
7.5.5 Peroxisome proliferases......Page 405
7.5.6 Pharmaceuticals in the environment......Page 406
7.6 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons......Page 407
7.7 Petroleum hydrocarbons......Page 409
7.8 Organotins......Page 412
7.9.1 Introduction......Page 413
REGULATION OF CYTOCHROME P450 INDUCTION......Page 414
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION......Page 415
7.9.3 Important mixed function oxidase reactions......Page 417
MFO INHIBITION......Page 421
7.9.4 Reductions......Page 422
7.9.5 Phase II reactions......Page 423
7.10 Environmental mobility of organic compounds......Page 424
RATE OF DEGRADATION......Page 426
Case Study 7.1. Pathology of beluga whales in the St. Lawrence estuary, Quebec, Canada......Page 427
Case Study 7.2. Recovery of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) in the Great Lakes......Page 428
Case Study 7.3. Feminisation of fish in English rivers......Page 429
7.12 Questions......Page 431
7.13 References......Page 433
8.1 Introduction......Page 436
8.2.1 What is ionising radiation?......Page 437
8.2.2 Units of measurement......Page 440
8.3.1 Molecular interactions......Page 441
8.3.2 Effect of radiation on the immune system......Page 443
8.4 Assessment of risk from radiation......Page 444
8.5.1 Background radiation......Page 449
8.5.2 Electricity production from nuclear power......Page 450
ENRICHMENT, CONVERSION, AND FUEL FABRICATION......Page 451
IN-CORE FUEL MANAGEMENT......Page 452
FUEL REPROCESSING......Page 453
LOW-LEVEL WASTE......Page 454
TRITIUM (3H)......Page 455
RADON (222Rn)......Page 456
IODINE (131I)......Page 457
8.6 Ecological effects of radiation......Page 458
Case Study 8.1. The Chernobyl accident......Page 459
8.9 References......Page 461
9.1 Introduction and rationale......Page 463
9.2.1 The issue......Page 464
EXPLORATION......Page 465
MINING......Page 466
9.2.3 Substances of concern that are mobilised or formed and released during mining, smelting, and other purification…......Page 467
SMELTING......Page 468
9.3.1 The issue......Page 474
9.3.2 Substances of concern I: Nutrient enrichment from pulp mills......Page 475
CHLORATE......Page 476
9.3.4 The environmental toxicology of mill effluent......Page 477
9.3.5 Mitigation: Means for minimising the impacts of pulp mills......Page 478
9.4.1 The issue of producing electricity from fossil fuel......Page 479
9.4.2 The issue of producing electricity from nuclear energy......Page 480
9.4.3 The issue of hydroelectric power......Page 486
9.4.4 Socioeconomic considerations......Page 487
9.5.2 The greenhouse effect......Page 490
9.5.3 Substances of concern: Greenhouse gases and their sources......Page 491
9.5.4 Global climate models......Page 492
9.6.1 The issue......Page 493
9.6.2 Substances of concern: photochemical oxidants......Page 494
HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS......Page 498
9.6.4 Substances of concern: Acid precipitation......Page 499
9.6.5 The environmental toxicology of acid precipitation......Page 500
9.7.1 The issue......Page 502
9.7.2 Substances of concern: Fertilisers......Page 505
9.7.3 The environmental toxicology of fertilisers......Page 506
HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS AS A CONSEQUENCE OF NUTRIENT RUNOFF......Page 509
9.7.4 Substances of concern: Pesticides......Page 511
PESTICIDE OCCURRENCE......Page 513
9.7.5 The environmental toxicology of pesticides......Page 514
9.8.1 The issue......Page 515
9.8.2 The environmental toxicology of oil......Page 517
9.8.4 Use of oil dispersants......Page 521
Case Study 9.1. The Florida Everglades: A case study of eutrophication related to agriculture and restoration......Page 522
9.10 References......Page 523
9.11 Further reading......Page 527
10.1 The context and rationale for ecological risk assessment......Page 528
THE PARADIGM......Page 530
PROBLEM FORMULATION......Page 531
ANALYSIS......Page 533
RISK CHARACTERISATION......Page 535
10.3 Site-specific risk assessment......Page 536
10.4 Dealing with uncertainty......Page 538
10.5 Factors triggering risk assessment......Page 539
Case Study 10.1. Risk assessment of the Clark River Superfund site......Page 540
Case Study 10.2. The Belle Park Island landfill site, Cataraqui Park, Kingston, Ontario: Site-specific risk assessment......Page 542
Case Study 10.3. An environmental risk assessment for ditallow dimethyl ammonium chloride in the Netherlands......Page 544
10.7 References......Page 546
10.8 Further reading......Page 547
11.1 The context for site contamination and recovery......Page 548
11.2 Exposure and hazard......Page 549
11.3 Site use......Page 550
11.4.1 Removal of the source of contamination......Page 551
11.4.2 Restriction of site use......Page 553
11.4.4 Removal of the contaminated material......Page 554
11.4.6 In situ treatment......Page 555
11.5 Remedial action plans......Page 556
11.6 Responsibilities......Page 557
11.7 Routes for recovery......Page 558
11.8 Recent regulatory approaches to contaminated sites......Page 560
Case Study 11.1. The Thames Estuary: Compound pollution and recovery......Page 563
Case Study 11.2. Lake Erie recovery......Page 566
Case Study 11.3. Deacidification trends in Clearwater Lake near Sudbury, Ontario, 1973–1992......Page 568
Case Study 11.4. The Inco Mine Tailings reclamation, Sudbury, Canada: Ecosystem reconstruction......Page 570
Case Study 11.5. Clean-up of lead-contaminated sites: The Ontario urban clean-up experience......Page 573
11.10 References......Page 575
12.1 Introduction......Page 578
COMMON LAW......Page 579
STATUTORY LAW......Page 580
12.3.1 Types of approach......Page 581
12.3.2 Objectives, standards, and related concepts......Page 584
GUIDELINES......Page 585
STANDARDS......Page 586
12.3.3 Risk assessment in a regulatory context......Page 589
12.3.4 Voluntary systems of regulation......Page 590
ARET IN CANADA......Page 591
THE EPA 33/50 INITIATIVE......Page 592
BILATERAL AGREEMENTS......Page 593
MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS......Page 594
12.4.1 Types of law......Page 597
12.4.2 The common law......Page 598
12.5 Federal statutes......Page 599
12.5.1 The United Kingdom and Europe......Page 607
12.5.3 The United States of America......Page 615
Case Study 12.2. Implementation of the Basel Convention: Turning back waste from Hungary......Page 616
12.8 References......Page 617
12.9 Further reading......Page 618
13.1 Introduction......Page 619
13.2.1 Expressing toxic action......Page 620
13.2.2 Bioavailability and uptake pathways as management tools......Page 624
13.2.3 Pathways/vectors of chemical exposure......Page 625
13.4 The question of biological scale......Page 628
13.5 Genotoxicity......Page 630
13.6 Society and the environment......Page 631
13.7 References......Page 633
Glossary......Page 636
Index......Page 649