Enhanced oil recovery

Contents
......Page 4
Introduction
......Page 12
1.1. Principal influences on the efficiency of enhanced recovery
......Page 14
b. Dip
......Page 15
c. Homogeneity
......Page 17
1.1.2. The influence of fluid characteristics
......Page 19
1.2.1. Frontal displacement
......Page 21
1.2.2. Piston-like displacement
......Page 24
1.3. Two and three-dimensional displacement
......Page 27
1.4.1.
 Central and peripheral flooding......Page 30
d. Seven-spot
......Page 32
e. Nine-spot
......Page 33
1.5. Areal sweep efficiency for pattern floods
......Page 34
1.5.1. Unit mobility ration
......Page 36
1.5.2. Non-unit mobility ratio
......Page 37
Appendix 1.1. The general theory of frontal displacement (Variable cross-section)
......Page 42
References
......Page 45
2.2. The selection of water injection as an enhanced recovery  method
......Page 46
2.2.2. Economic factors
......Page 47
2.3.1. Homogeneous reservoirs
......Page 48
b. Layered reservoirs
......Page 51
c. Reservoirs with random heterogeneities
......Page 53
2.4. Water injection in regularly developed homogeneous reservoirs
......Page 54
2.5.1. Hand calculations. Analytical methods
......Page 57
a. Buckley-Leverett theory
......Page 58
b. Viscous fingering theory
......Page 59
a. The Stiles method
......Page 61
b. The Dykstra-Parsons and Johnson methods
......Page 65
2.5.1.3. Other methods
......Page 68
2.5.2. Hand calculations. Empirical methods
......Page 69
2.6. Optimum initial free gas saturation for water injection
......Page 70
b. Conversation of existing production wells
......Page 72
a. Detection of thief zones
......Page 73
2.7.2.1. Sources of injected water
......Page 74
b. Treatment methods
......Page 76
2.7.3. Pumps
......Page 77
2.7.4. The Operation of a water injection system
......Page 78
2.7.5. The Use of tracers to control sweep efficiency
......Page 79
Appendix 2.1. A study of the comparative merits of water and gas injection in the lower Gassi Touil reservoir (Ref. 4)
......Page 80
b. Analysis of pressure fall-off curves in reservoir filled with fluids of equal mobility
......Page 81
c. Hazebroek's analytical solutions for a party liquid filled reservoir
......Page 85
References
......Page 92
b. Gas injection into an oil zone
......Page 94
a. Injection into the gas-cap
......Page 96
3.3. Sweep efficiency
......Page 97
3.4.1. The monitoring of sweep efficiency using radioactive tracers
......Page 99
3.4.2. Calculations based on frontal displacement theory and material balance
......Page 100
b. Oil zone injection; reservoir with no gas cap: Sgi = 0......Page 102
3.5. Injection well completions
......Page 104
3.7. Surface installations. Compression and treatment
......Page 105
3.7.2. Compressor installations
......Page 106
3.8.1. The formation of a secondary gas-cap
......Page 107
3.8.3. Foam injection
......Page 108
References
......Page 109
4.1. Introduction
......Page 110
4.2. Miscible slug flooding
......Page 111
4.3. Thermodynamic miscibility
......Page 112
4.4. The ternary diagram
......Page 113
4.5.1. High pressure gas injection
......Page 115
a. Phase conditions in the reservoir
......Page 116
c. Application of high pressure natural gas injection
......Page 118
4.5.1.2. High pressure inert gas injection
......Page 119
a. Description of the process
......Page 120
b. Operating conditions
......Page 122
4.5.3. LPG slug injection
......Page 123
4.5.4. Alcohol slug injection
......Page 124
4.6.1. Pre-injection of water (Ref. 3)
......Page 125
4.6.2. Miscible slugs driven by water
......Page 126
4.8.2. Mathematical models
......Page 128
5.1. Introduction
......Page 133
5.2. The thermodynamics of gas recycling
......Page 135
5.3. Sweep efficiency
......Page 136
5.4. Well locations
......Page 137
5.5. Production control
......Page 139
5.6. Production equipment
......Page 141
5.7. Determination of operating conditions
......Page 142
I. Reservoir characteristics
......Page 143
a. The model
......Page 144
a. Description of the model
......Page 147
b. Results of the model study
......Page 149
References
......Page 153
References
......Page 132
6. Thermal recovery methods
......Page 154
a. Viscosity
......Page 155
b. Relative permeability
......Page 159
b. Thermal capacity
......Page 162
d. Latent heat of vaporization
......Page 163
a. T
he thermodynamics of chemical reactions......Page 164
b. Chemical kinetics
......Page 167
6.2. Hot fluid displacement
......Page 169
6.2.1. Basic principles (Refs. 1,11)
......Page 170
a. Hot water displacement
......Page 171
b. Displacement by saturated steam (Ref. 2
......Page 172
c. A composition of displacement by cold water, hot water and steam
......Page 174
6.2.2. Areal sweep efficiency and stability
......Page 175
a. Heat loss from the reservoir
......Page 177
b. In the injection well
......Page 180
a. Cyclic injection of steam possibly followed by a steamflood
......Page 181
b. Injection of a steam slug followed by cold water
......Page 182
6.2.5. Field applications of hot fluid injection
......Page 183
a. Limitations of the methods
......Page 184
c. Test results
......Page 186
a. Dry forward combustion
......Page 187
c. Reverse combustion
......Page 189
a. Crude oil oxidation in porous media
......Page 191
b. Experimental study of forward combustion
......Page 196
c. The study of reverse combustion
......Page 200
a. Advantages of the technique and its limits of application
......Page 203
b. Operating methods
......Page 204
c. Sweep efficiency and recovery factor
......Page 207
d. Examples of field application of in-situ combustion
......Page 208
Conclusion
......Page 211
References
......Page 213
7.2. The use of polymers
......Page 215
7.3. Foam injection
......Page 218
7.4. The use of surfactant solutions
......Page 220
7.5. Micro-emulsions the maraflood project
......Page 221
a. Oil
......Page 222
7.6.2. The effects of CO2 on rock (Ref. 22 )
......Page 225
7.6.4. Miscible displacement by CO2
......Page 227
7.6.5. Field applications
......Page 230
7.7. Conclusions
......Page 233
Appendix 7.1.
......Page 234
1. viscoelasticity and relaxation time
......Page 235
2. Laminar flow
......Page 236
3. Flow with logitudinal strain
......Page 238
References
......Page 239
Subject Index
......Page 241