Engineering metrology and measurements

Content: 1. : BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING METROLOGY  
 1.1 INTRODUCTION  
 1.2 METROLOGY DEFINED  
 1.3 NEED FOR INSPECTION  
 1.4 ACCURACY AND PRECISION  
 1.4.1 ACCURACY AND COST  
 1.5 OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS  
 1.6 GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS  
 1.6.1 CALIBRATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS  
 1.7 ERROR IN MEASUREMENTS  
 1.7.1 SYSTEMATIC AND CONTROLLABLE ERRORS  
 1.7.2 RANDOM ERRORS  
 1.8 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT  
 2. : STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT  
 2.1 INTRODUCTION  
 2.2 STANDARDS AND THEIR ROLES  
 2.3 EVOLUTION OF STANDARDS  
 2.4 THE NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY (NPL)  
 2.5 MATERIAL STANDARD  
 2.5.1 YARD  
 2.5.2 METRE  
 2.5.3. DISADVANTAGES OF MATERIAL STANDARD  
 2.6 WAVELENGTH STANDARD  
 2.6.1 THE MODERN METRE  
 2.7 SUBDIVISIONS OF STANDARDS  
 2.8 LINE AND END MEASUREMENT  
 2.8.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE STANDARDS  
 2.8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF END STANDARDS  
 2.8.3 TRANSFER FROM LINE STANDARD TO END STANDARD  
 2.9 BROOKES LEVEL COMPARATOR  
 2.10 DISPLACEMENT METHOD  
 2.11 CALIBRATION OF END BARS  
 3. : LIMITS, FITS, AND TOLERANCES  
 3.1 INTRODUCTION  
 3.2 PRINCIPLE OF INTERCHANGEABILITY  
 3.2.1 SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY APPROACH  
 3.3 TOLERANCES  
 3.3.1 COMPUTER AIDED MODELLING  
 3.3.2 MANUFACTURING COST AND WORK TOLERANCE  
 3.3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TOLERANCES  
 3.4 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM METAL CONDITIONS  
 3.5 FITS  
 3.5.1 ALLOWANCE  
 3.5.2 HOLE BASIS AND SHAFT BASIS SYSTEM  
 3.6 SYSTEMS OF LIMITS AND FITS  
 3.6.1 GENERAL TERMINOLOGIES  
 3.6.2 LIMIT GAUGING  
 3.6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GAUGES  
 3.6.4 TAYLOR'S PRINCIPLE  
 3.6.5 IMPORTANT GUIDELINES FOR GAUGE DESIGN  
 3.6.6 MATERIAL FOR GAUGES  
 3.6.7 GAUGE TOLERANCE  
 3.6.8 WEAR ALLOWANCE  
 3.6.9 METHODS OF TOLERANCE SPECIFICATION ON GAUGES  
 3.7 PLAIN PLUG GAUGES  
 3.8 SNAP GAUGES  
 4. : LINEAR MEASUREMENTS  
 4.1 INTRODUCTION  
 4.2 DESIGN OF LINEAR MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS  
 4.3 SURFACE PLATE  
 4.4 V BLOCKS  
 4.5 GRADUATED SCALES  
 4.6 SCALED INSTRUMENTS  
 4.6.1 DEPTH GAUGE  
 4.6.2 COMBINATION SET  
 4.6.3 CALIPERS  
 4.7 VERNIER INSTRUMENTS  
 4.7.1 VERNIER CALIPERS  
 4.7.2 VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE  
 4.7.3 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE  
 4.8 MICROMETER INSTRUMENTS  
 4.8.1 OUTSIDE MICROMETER  
 4.8.2 VERNIER MICROMETER  
 4.8.3 DIGITAL MICROMETER  
 4.8.4 INSIDE MICROMETER CALIPER  
 4.8.5 INSIDE MICROMETER  
 4.8.6 DEPTH MICROMETER  
 4.8.7 FLOATING CARRIAGE MICROMETER  
 4.9 SLIP GAUGES  
 4.9.1 GAUGE BLOCK SHAPES, GRADES AND SIZES  
 4.9.2 WRINGING OF SLIP GAUGES  
 4.9.3 MANUFACTURE OF SLIP GAUGES  
 4.9.4 CALIBRATION OF SLIP GAUGES  
 5. : ANGULAR MEASUREMENT  
 5.1 INTRODUCTION  
 5.2 PROTRACTOR  
 5.2.1 UNIVERSAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR  
 5.2.2 OPTICAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR  
 5.3 SINE BAR  
 5.3.1 SINE BLOCKS, SINE PLATES, AND SINE TABLES  
 5.3.2 SINE CENTRE  
 5.4 ANGLE GAUGES  
 5.4.1 USES OF ANGLE GAUGES  
 5.4.2 MANUFACTURE AND CALIBRATION OF ANGLE GAUGES  
 5.4.3 TRUE SQUARE  
 5.5 SPIRIT LEVEL  
 5.5.1 CLINOMETER  
 5.6 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS FOR ANGULAR MEASUREMENT  
 5.6.1 AUTOCOLLIMATOR  
 5.6.2 AUTOCOLLIMATOR APPLICATIONS  
 5.6.3 ANGLE DEKKOR  
 6. : COMPARATORS  
 6.1 INTRODUCTION  
 6.2 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS  
 6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPARATORS  
 6.4 MECHANICAL COMPARATORS  
 6.4.1 DIAL INDICATORS  
 6.4.2 JOHANSSON MICROKATOR  
 6.4.3 SIGMA COMPARATOR  
 6.5 MECHANICAL OPTICAL COMPARATOR  
 6.5.1 ZEISS ULTRA OPTIMETER  
 6.5.2 OPTICAL PROJECTOR  
 6.6 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC COMPARATORS  
 6.6.1 LVDT  
 6.6.2 ELECTRONIC COMPARATOR  
 6.7 PNEUMATIC COMPARATOR  
 6.7.1 FREE FLOW AIR GAUGE  
 6.7.2 BACK PRESSURE GAUGE  
 6.7.3 SOLEX PNEUMATIC GAUGE  
 6.7.4 APPLICATIONS OF PNEUMATIC COMPARATORS  
 7. : OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS AND INTERFEROMETRY  
 7.1 INTRODUCTION  
 7.2 OPTICAL MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES  
 7.2.1 TOOL MAKER'S MICROSCOPE  
 7.2.2 PROFILE PROJECTOR  
 7.2.3 OPTICAL SQUARES  
 7.3 OPTICAL INTERFERENCE  
 7.4 INTERFEROMETRY  
 7.4.1 OPTICAL FLATS  
 7.5 INTERFEROMETERS  
 7.5.1 THE NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER  
 7.5.2 PITTER-NPL GAUGE INTERFEROMETER  
 7.5.3 LASER INTERFEROMETERS  
 7.6 SCALES, GRATING, AND RETICLES  
 7.6.1 SCALES  
 7.6.2 GRATINGS  
 7.6.3 RETICLES  
 8. : METROLOGY OF GEARS AND SCREW THREADS  
 8.1 INTRODUCTION  
 8.2 GEAR TERMINOLOGY  
 8.3 ERROR IN SPUR GEARS  
 8.4 MEASUREMENT OF GEAR ELEMENTS  
 8.5 COMPOSITE METHOD OF GEAR INSPECTION  
 8.5.1 PARKINSON GEAR TESTER  
 8.6 MEASUREMENT OF SCREW THREADS  
 8.7 SCREW THREAD TERMINOLOGY  
 8.8 MEASUREMENT OF SCREW THREAD ELEMENTS  
 8.8.1 MEASUREMENT OF MAJOR DIAMETER  
 8.8.2 MEASUREMENT OF MINOR DIAMETER  
 8.8.3 MEASUREMENT OF EFFECTIVE DIAMETER  
 8.8.4 MEASUREMENT OF PITCH  
 8.9 THREAD GAUGES  
 9. : METROLOGY OF SURFACE FINISH  
 9.1 INTRODUCTION  
 9.2 SURFACE METROLOGY CONCEPTS  
 9.3 TERMINOLOGIES  
 9.4 ANALYSIS OF SURFACE TRACES  
 9.4.1 TEN POINT HEIGHT AVERAGE VALUE  
 9.4.2 ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE  
 9.4.3 CENTRAL LINE AVERAGE VALUE  
 9.5 SPECIFICATION OF SURFACE TEXTURE CHARACTERISTICS  
 9.6 METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE FINISH  
 9.7 STYLUS SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT  
 9.7.1 THE STYLUS AND DATUM  
 9.8 STYLUS PROBE INSTRUMENTS  
 9.8.1 TOMLINSON SURFACE METER  
 9.8.2 TAYLOR-HOBSON TALYSURF  
 9.8.3 PROFILOMETER  
 9.9 WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, AND CUTOFF  
 9.10 OTHER METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE ROUGHNESS  
 9.10.1 PNEUMATIC METHOD  
 9.10.2 LIGHT INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE  
 9.10.3 MECRIN INSTRUMENT  
 10. : MISCELLANEOUS METROLOGY  
 10.1 INTRODUCTION  
 10.2 PRECISION INSTRUMENTATION BASED ON LASER PRINCIPLES  
 10.3 COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES (CMM)  
 10.3.1 STRUCTURE OF CMM  
 10.3.2 MODES OF OPERATION  
 10.3.3 THE PROBE  
 10.3.4 OPERATION OF CMM  
 10.3.5 MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF CMM  
 10.4 MACHINE TOOL METROLOGY  
 10.4.1 STRAIGHTNESS, FLATNESS, PARALLELISM, SQUARENESS, ROUNDNESS, CYLINDRICITY, AND RUNOUT  
 10.4.2 ACCEPTANCE TEST FOR MACHINE TOOLS  
 10.5 AUTOMATED INSPECTION  
 10.6 MACHINE VISION  
 10.6.1 STAGES OF MACHINE VISION  
 10.6.2 APPLICATIONS OF MACHINE VISION IN INSPECTION  
 11. : INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL  
 11.1 INTRODUCTION  
 11.2 INSPECTION  
 11.3 SPECIFYING THE LIMITS OF VARIABILITY  
 11.4 DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES  
 11.5 SELECTION OF GAUGING EQUIPMENT  
 11.6 GAUGE CONTROL  
 11.7 QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE  
 11.8 STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL  
 11.8.1 PROCESS VARIABILITY  
 11.8.2 IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING  
 11.8.3 SQC BY ATTRIBUTES  
 11.8.4 SQC BY VARIABLES  
 11.9 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT  
 11.9.1 CUSTOMER FOCUS  
 11.9.2 CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT  
 11.9.3 EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT  
 11.9.4 USE OF QUALITY TOOLS  
 11.9.5 PRODUCT DESIGN  
 11.9.6 PROCESS MANAGEMENT  
 11.9.7 MANAGING SUPPLIER QUALITY  
 11.10 SIX SIGMA  
 11.10.1 SIX SIGMA APPROACH  
 11.10.2 TRAINING FOR SIX SIGMA  
 11.11 QUALITY STANDARDS  
 11.11.1 QUALITY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES OF ISO 9000  
 11.11.2 IMPLEMENTING ISO STANDARDS  
 12. : MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS  
 12.1 INTRODUCTION  
 12.2 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS  
 12.2.1 HYSTERESIS IN MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS  
 12.2.2 LINEARITY IN MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS  
 12.2.3 RESOLUTION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS  
 12.2.4 THRESHOLD  
 12.2.5 DRIFT  
 12.2.6 ZERO STABILITY  
 12.2.7 LOADING EFFECTS  
 12.2.8 SYSTEM RESPONSE  
 12.3 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS  
 12.4 PRIMARY DETECTOR-TRANSDUCER STAGE  
 12.5 THE INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE  
 12.6 THE OUTPUT OR TERMINATING STAGE  
 13. : TRANSDUCERS  
 13.1 INTRODUCTION  
 13.2 TRANSFER EFFICIENCY  
 13.3 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS  
 13.3.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS  
 13.3.2 BASED ON PRINCIPLES OF TRANSDUCTION  
 13.3.3 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS  
 13.3.4 ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS  
 13.3.5 TRANSDUCERS AND INVERSE TRANSDUCERS  
 13.3.6 NULL AND DEFLECTION TYPE TRANSDUCERS  
 13.4 QUALITY ATTRIBUTES FOR TRANSDUCERS  
 13.5 INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES  
 13.5.1 INHERENT PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL SYSTEMS  
 13.5.2 KINEMATIC LINEARITY  
 13.5.3 MECHANICAL AMPLIFICATION  
 13.5.4 REFLECTED FRICTIONAL AMPLIFICATION  
 13.5.5REFLECTED INERTIAL AMPLIFICATION  
 13.5.6 AMPLIFICATION OF BACKLASH AND ELASTIC DEFORMATION  
 13.5.7 TOLERANCE PROBLEMS  
 13.5.8 TEMPERATURE PROBLEMS  
 13.6 ELECTRICAL INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES  
 13.6.1 INPUT CIRCUITRY  
 13.6.2 SIMPLE CURRENT SENSITIVE CIRCUIT  
 13.6.3 BALLAST CIRCUIT  
 13.6.4 ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIERS  
 13.6.5 TELEMETRY  
 13.7 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES  
 13.8 TERMINATING DEVICES  
 13.8.1 METERING INDICATORS  
 13.8.2 MECHANICAL COUNTERS  
 13.8.3 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)  
 13.8.4 OSCILLOGRAPHS  
 13.8.5 X-Y PLOTTERS  
 13.8.6 STROBOSCOPIC MEASUREMENTS  
 14. : MEASUREMENT OF FORCE, TORQUE, AND STRAIN  
 14.1 INTRODUCTION  
 14.2 MEASUREMENT OF FORCE  
 14.2.1 DIRECT METHODS  
 14.3 ELASTIC MEMBERS  
 14.3.1 LOAD CELLS  
 14.3.2 CANTILEVER BEAMS  
 14.3.3 PROVING RINGS  
 14.3.4 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS  
 14.4 MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE  
 14.4.1 TORSION BAR DYNAMOMETER  
 14.4.2 SERVO CONTROLLED DYNAMOMETERS  
 14.4.3 ABSORPTION DYNAMOMETERS  
 14.5 MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN  
 14.5.1 MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGES  
 14.5.2 ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGES  
 14.6 STRAIN GAUGE MATERIALS  
 14.7 BACKING OR CARRIER MATERIALS  
 14.9 ADHESIVES  
 14.10 PROTECTIVE COATINGS  
 14.11 BONDING OF GAUGES  
 14.12 GAUGE FACTOR  
 14.13 THEORY OF STRAIN GAUGES  
 14.14 METHODS OF STRAIN MEASUREMENTS  
 14.15 STRAIN GAUGE BRIDGE ARRANGEMENT  
 14.16 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION IN STRAIN GAUGES  
 14.16.1 ADJACENT ARM COMPENSATING GAUGES  
 14.16.2 SELF TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION  
 15. : TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT  
 15.1 INTRODUCTION  
 15.2 METHODS OF MEASURING TEMPERATURE  
 15.3 THERMOCOUPLES  
 15.3.1 LAW OF THERMOCOUPLES  
 15.3.2 THERMOCOUPLE MATERIALS  
 15.3.3 THERMOPILES  
 15.4 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTD)  
 15.5 THERMISTORS  
 15.6 LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS  
 15.7 PRESSURE THERMOMETERS  
 15.8 BIMETALLIC STRIP THERMOMETERS  
 15.9 PYROMETRY  
 15.9.1 TOTAL RADIATION PYROMETER  
 15.9.2 OPTICAL PYROMETER  
 15.9.3 FIBRE OPTIC PYROMETERS  
 16. : PRESSURE MEASUREMENT  
 16.1 INTRODUCTION  
 16.2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT SCALES  
 16.3 METHODS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT  
 16.3.1 STATIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENT  
 16.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES  
 16.3.3 MANOMETERS FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENT  
 16.4 RING BALANCE  
 16.5 INVERTED BELL MANOMETER  
 16.6 ELASTIC TRANSDUCERS  
 16.7 ELASTIC PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS  
 16.7.1 RESISTANCE TYPE TRANSDUCERS  
 16.7.2 POTENTIOMETER DEVICES  
 16.7.3 INDUCTIVE TYPE TRANSDUCER  
 16.7.4 CAPACITIVE TYPE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER  
 16.7.5 PIEZO ELECTRIC TYPE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER  
 16.7.6 VARYING PRESSURE MEASUREMENT  
 16.8 DEAD WEIGHT PRESSURE GAUGE  
 16.9 MEASUREMENT OF VACUUM  
 16.9.1 MCLEOD GAUGE  
 16.9.2 PIRANI GAUGE  
 16.9.3 IONIZATION GAUGE  
 16.9.4 KNUDSEN GAUGE  
 16.10 MEASUREMENT OF HIGH PRESSURE  
 17. : NANOMETROLOGY  
 17.1 INTRODUCTION  
 17.2 NANOTECHNOLOGY  
 17.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF NANO DIMENSION  
 17.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF NANOSTRUCTURES  
 17.2.3 APPLICATIONS  
 17.3 IMPORTANCE OF NANOMETROLOGY  
 17.4 INTRODUCTION TO MICROSCOPY  
 17.4.1 TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM)  
 17.4.2 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)  
 17.4.3 SCANNING TUNNELLING MICROSCOPE (STM)  
 17.4.4 ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPE (AFM)  
 17.5 X-RAY DIFFRACTION SYSTEM (XRD)  
 APPENDIX A: UNIVERSAL MEASURING MACHINE  
 APPENDIX B: FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS  
 APPENDIX C: LABORATORY MANUAL  
 APPENDIX D: QUALITY CONTROL CHARTS