Engineering Aspects of Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production

Title Page......Page 5
Copyright Page......Page 6
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 19
Acknowledgement......Page 21
Chapter 1 Introduction......Page 23
 1.2 The Impact of Corrosion......Page 24
  1.2.1 The Overall Financial Impact......Page 26
 1.3 Principal Types of Corrosion in Hydrocarbon Production......Page 27
  1.3.1 Corrosion Threats......Page 28
 1.4 The Way Ahead: Positive Corrosion......Page 29
 1.5 Summary......Page 30
 Bibliography......Page 31
 2.1 Steel Products......Page 33
 2.2 Development of Mechanical Properties......Page 34
   2.2.1.3 Mechanical Working......Page 35
  2.3.1 Solid Solution Strengthening......Page 36
  2.3.4 Dispersion Strengthening......Page 37
 2.5 Weldability......Page 38
 2.7 Well Completion Downhole Tubulars......Page 39
 2.9 Summary......Page 40
 API/ISO Specifications......Page 42
 Further Reading......Page 43
 3.1 Background......Page 45
 3.2 Alloying Elements, Microstructures, and their Significance for Corrosion Performance......Page 46
  3.2.2 Improving Corrosion Resistance......Page 47
  3.2.4 The Schaeffler Diagram and its Application......Page 50
   3.2.4.1 Nickel and Chromium Equivalents......Page 51
  3.3.2 Mechanical Properties and Strengthening Methods......Page 52
  3.3.3 Yield Strength......Page 53
  3.4.1 Martensitic and Super Martensitic Stainless Steels (MSSs and SMSSs)......Page 55
  3.4.2 Duplex and Super Duplex Stainless Steels (DSSs and SDSSs)......Page 56
  3.4.5 Titanium Alloys......Page 57
 3.5 Limits of Application......Page 58
  3.6.1 Selection Criteria Check List......Page 59
 3.7 Future Demands and Requirements......Page 61
 3.8 Summary......Page 62
 References......Page 63
 Further Reading......Page 64
Chapter 4 Water Chemistry......Page 65
 4.1 Sources of Water......Page 66
 4.2 Water Chemistry......Page 67
 4.3 Other Impacts on Corrosivity......Page 68
  4.3.1 Mineral Scale......Page 69
  4.3.3 Iron Sulphide......Page 70
  4.4.1 Sampling......Page 71
  4.4.2 Interpretation of Results......Page 73
 4.5 Influential Parameters in System Corrosivity......Page 75
 References......Page 76
 Standards......Page 77
Chapter 5 Internal Metal Loss Corrosion Threats......Page 79
  5.1.1 The Mechanism......Page 80
   5.1.2.3 Flow-Induced Localised Corrosion......Page 81
 5.2 Key Influential Factors......Page 82
   5.2.1.2 The Effect of Organic Acid......Page 83
 5.3 Metal Loss CO2 Corrosion Prediction......Page 85
  5.3.1 Industry Practice......Page 86
 5.4 Metal Loss Corrosion in Mixed H2S/CO2 Containing Streams......Page 88
  5.4.1 Assessment Methods......Page 89
 5.5 Summary......Page 90
 References......Page 91
 Bibliography......Page 93
 6.1 Environmental Cracking Threat in Steels......Page 95
 6.2 EC Associated with Hydrogen Sulphide......Page 96
  6.2.2 Types of H2S Corrosion Threat......Page 98
  6.2.3 Categories, Types, Manifestation, and Mitigation Measures of H2S EC Threats......Page 99
   6.2.3.2 Hydrogen Internal Pressure Effects......Page 102
   6.2.3.5 Operating Temperatures......Page 104
  6.4.2 Part 2......Page 105
   6.4.2.2 Key Governing Criteria......Page 107
 Notes......Page 108
 Bibliography......Page 109
Chapter 7 Corrosion in Injection Systems......Page 111
 7.2 Injection Systems......Page 112
  7.2.1 Treated Water......Page 113
  7.3.1 Mechanical Treatment......Page 114
   7.3.2.4 Bacterial Growth and Proliferation......Page 115
 7.4 Water Corrosivity......Page 116
  7.5.1 Oldfield and Todd......Page 117
  7.5.2 Berger and Hau......Page 118
   7.6.1.1 CLAS......Page 119
   7.6.1.3 Plastic-Coated Tubulars......Page 120
   7.6.2.1 Bare CLAS......Page 121
 7.7 Supplementary Notes......Page 122
 7.8 Hydrotesting......Page 123
 Note......Page 125
 Bibliography......Page 126
 8.1 Inhibitor Characteristics......Page 127
  8.1.2 Inhibitor Formulation......Page 128
  8.1.3 Inhibitor Species and Functionality......Page 130
  8.1.4 Inhibitor Performance......Page 131
   8.1.4.1 The Effect of Fluid Flow......Page 132
 8.2 Inhibitor Testing and Application......Page 133
  8.2.2 Inhibitor Testing/Selection......Page 134
   8.2.2.2 Appropriate Tests......Page 135
  8.3.1 Continuous Injection......Page 138
   8.3.1.1 Inhibitor Availability......Page 139
  8.3.3 Wet Gas Lines......Page 140
 8.4 Summary......Page 141
 References......Page 142
 9.1 External Pipeline Coatings......Page 145
  9.1.2 Polyolefin Coatings......Page 146
  9.1.3 Field Joint Coatings......Page 148
 9.2 Internal Coating and Lining......Page 150
  9.2.1 Plastic-Coated Tubular (PCT)......Page 151
  9.3.1 Offshore Structures......Page 152
 Bibliography......Page 154
Chapter 10 Corrosion Trending......Page 155
 10.1 The Purpose of Corrosion Trending......Page 156
  10.2.1 Corrosion Rate Monitoring......Page 157
  10.2.3 Electrical Resistance (ER) Probes......Page 158
  10.2.4 Electrochemical Methods......Page 159
  10.2.5 Locating Internal Corrosion Monitoring Devices......Page 160
  10.2.6 Erosion Rate Monitoring......Page 161
  10.2.7 Access Fittings......Page 162
  10.2.8 Cost Considerations......Page 163
 10.3 Corrosion Barrier Monitoring......Page 164
 10.4 Collection and Analysis of Real-Time Monitoring Data......Page 165
 10.5 Downhole Corrosion Monitoring......Page 167
  10.6.1 Equipment Portability......Page 168
 10.7 Intelligent Pigging......Page 169
 10.8 Future Considerations......Page 171
 References......Page 172
 Specifications......Page 173
Chapter 11 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)......Page 175
 11.1 Main Features......Page 176
 11.2 The Primary Causes......Page 177
 11.3 The Motive for Promotion of Corrosion by Micro-organisms......Page 179
  11.3.2 Microbial Activity Inside the Biofilms......Page 180
  11.3.3 Bridging Surface to Biofilm......Page 181
 11.4 Most Susceptible Locations and Conditions......Page 183
  11.4.1 Most MIC-Prone Environments and Facilities......Page 184
  11.4.3 Uncertain Limits and Conditions of Occurrence......Page 185
  11.4.4 Brief Overview......Page 186
  11.5.1 Biocide Treatments......Page 187
  11.5.5 Cathodic Protection and Coatings......Page 189
 11.6 Means of Monitoring......Page 190
 11.7 Summary......Page 192
 References......Page 193
 Bibliography......Page 194
 12.1 Background......Page 195
 12.2 CO2 Stream Composition......Page 197
  12.3.2 Impurities and Formation of Corrosive Phases......Page 199
 12.4 Means of Corrosion Prediction......Page 200
  12.5.2 Transport of Wet CO2......Page 201
  12.5.5 Downhole Corrosion......Page 202
 References......Page 203
 13.1 Historical Context......Page 205
  13.2.1 Water......Page 206
  13.2.2 Contaminants......Page 207
  13.2.4 The Effect of Temperature on CUI......Page 208
  13.2.6 The Effect of Insulation Type on CUI......Page 209
 13.3 CUI Prevention Methods......Page 211
  13.3.2 Organic Coatings for Carbon Steel Components......Page 212
  13.3.3 Thermally Spray Aluminium (TSA)......Page 213
  13.4.1 Stainless Steel for Small Diameter Piping......Page 214
 13.5 CUI Inspection......Page 215
 13.6 NDE/NDT Techniques to Detect CUI......Page 217
 13.7 Summary......Page 218
 References......Page 219
 14.1 Background......Page 221
  14.2.2 Wells/Subsurface Components......Page 222
  14.2.4 Flowlines and Unprocessed Fluids Pipelines......Page 223
  14.2.9 Seals and Elastomers......Page 225
  14.3.2 Injection......Page 226
 14.4 System Corrosivity......Page 227
 14.6 Metallic Materials Optimisation Methodology......Page 228
  14.7.1 Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (CLASs)......Page 229
 14.8 Internal Corrosion Mitigation Methods......Page 230
  14.8.3 pH Stabilisation......Page 231
 14.9 Whole Life Cost (WLC) Analysis......Page 232
 14.10 Materials Optimisation Strategy......Page 233
 References......Page 234
 Bibliography......Page 235
 15.1 Elastomer Seals......Page 237
   15.1.1.3 Fluorocarbon Rubber (FKM)......Page 238
  15.1.2 Key Potential Failure Modes......Page 239
   15.1.3.1 Degradation Due to Temperature and Chemical Environment......Page 241
  15.1.4 Project-Specific Elastomer Seal Selection Guidelines......Page 242
   15.2.1.2 RTP Qualification......Page 243
   15.2.1.3 RTP Installation......Page 244
   15.2.2.1 Plastic Liner Installation......Page 245
   15.2.3.1 Plastic Liner Qualification......Page 246
   15.2.5.1 ‘Hybrid’ Solutions......Page 247
 15.3 Flexible Pipes......Page 248
  15.3.3 Reinforcement Wires......Page 249
  15.3.4 External Plastic Sheath......Page 250
 Notes......Page 251
 Bibliography......Page 252
Chapter 16 Cathodic Protection (CP)......Page 253
  16.2.1 Design......Page 254
   16.2.1.1 Typical Design Considerations......Page 255
  16.2.2 Sacrificial Anode Materials......Page 257
   16.2.3.1 General Considerations......Page 258
 16.3 Cathodic Protection and Hydrogen-Induced Cracking (HAC)......Page 259
  16.4.1 Cathodic Protection Criteria......Page 260
   16.4.2.1 Groundbed......Page 261
 16.5 Cathodic Protection of Well Casings......Page 262
 16.6 Cathodic Protection and AC Interference......Page 263
 16.9 Summary......Page 264
 Notes......Page 265
 References......Page 266
 Bibliography......Page 267
Chapter 17 Corrosion Risk Analysis......Page 269
 17.2 The Bow Tie Concept......Page 270
 17.3 Risk Matrix......Page 271
 17.4 Corrosion RBA Process......Page 272
 17.5 Corrosion RBA: Input......Page 273
 17.6 Corrosion RBA: Analysis......Page 274
  17.6.1 An Example: Flowline Corrosion......Page 275
  17.6.2 An Example: Sulphide Stress Cracking......Page 276
 17.7 Corrosion RBA: Output......Page 277
 17.8 Corrosion RBA: Overall Process......Page 279
 17.10 Behaviours......Page 280
 17.11 Bayes’ Theorem......Page 281
 Note......Page 282
 References......Page 283
 18.1 Integrity Management (IM)......Page 285
  18.1.1 Overview of IM Elements and Practice......Page 286
  18.1.3 Implementation......Page 287
 18.2 Corrosion Management (CM)......Page 288
  18.2.2 Performance Indicators (PIs)......Page 290
  18.2.4 Performance Reviews......Page 291
  18.3.3 Data Collation and Representation......Page 293
 18.4 The Future......Page 296
 18.5 Summary......Page 297
 Bibliography......Page 298
 19.1 Energy Viewpoint and the Role of Technology......Page 299
 19.3 Challenges in Materials and Corrosion Technology......Page 300
 19.4 Shortfalls in Technology Implementation and Knowledge Partnership......Page 301
  19.4.2 22%Cr Duplex Stainless Steel......Page 303
  19.4.5 Super-Martensitic 13%Cr Line Pipe Steels......Page 304
  19.4.6 Riser Systems......Page 305
 References......Page 306
 Bibliography......Page 308
Abbreviations......Page 309
Index......Page 313
Supplemental Images......Page 323
EULA......Page 339