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دانلود کتاب Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes
دانلود کتاب دایره المعارف زیست بوم های جهان
مشخصات کتاب
Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes
ویرایش: 1 نویسندگان: Michael I. Goldstein (editor), Dominick A. DellaSala (editor) سری: ISBN (شابک) : 0128160969, 9780128160961 ناشر: Elsevier سال نشر: 2020 تعداد صفحات: 3375 زبان: English فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود) حجم فایل: 153 مگابایت
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توضیحاتی در مورد کتاب دایره المعارف زیست بوم های جهان
دایره‌المعارف بیوم‌های جهان مرجعی منحصر به فرد و پنج جلدی است که ترکیبی جهانی از بیوم‌ها، از جمله جدیدترین علم، ارائه می‌کند. همه فصل‌های کتاب از نظم موضوعی مشترکی پیروی می‌کنند که اهمیت تنوع زیستی، عوامل استرس‌زا و روندهای اصلی انسانی، تغییر شرایط آب‌وهوایی، و استراتژی‌های حفاظتی برای حفظ بیوم‌ها در جهانی تحت سلطه انسان‌ها را در بر می‌گیرد. این کار یک فروشگاه یک‌جا است که به کاربران امکان می‌دهد به مقالات به‌روز و آموزنده‌ای دسترسی داشته باشند که از نظر محتوایی عمیق‌تر از هر نشریه فعلی موجود است.
توضیحاتی درمورد کتاب به خارجی
Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes is a unique, five volume reference that provides a global synthesis of biomes, including the latest science. All of the book's chapters follow a common thematic order that spans biodiversity importance, principal anthropogenic stressors and trends, changing climatic conditions, and conservation strategies for maintaining biomes in an increasingly human-dominated world. This work is a one-stop shop that gives users access to up-to-date, informative articles that go deeper in content than any currently available publication.
فهرست مطالب
Volume 1 Perspectives on Terrestrial Biomes: The International Vegetation Classification Abstract Biomes, Ecosystems and Vegetation Why Include an IVC Perspective on Biomes? Overview of the International Vegetation Classification IVC and the EcoVeg Approach Guiding Principles Natural and Cultural Vegetation Classification of natural and semi-natural vegetation Classification of cultural vegetation Supporting Infrastructure and Peer Review Biome-Scale Levels of theIVC Formations: Global Biomes/Ecosystems Divisions: Continental Biomes/Ecosystems Macrogroup: Regional Ecosystems Comparison of IVC Biome-Scale Levels With Other Global Classifications The IVC as the Basis for a Collaborative Framework Among Various Continental-National Approaches South America Bolivia Africa Europe China Australia and New Zealand Applications of IVC for Conservation Conclusions Acknowledgment References Relevant Websites Freshwater Biome of the World Introduction Different Freshwater Sub-Biomes Rivers and Streams Lakes Palustrine Wetlands Transitional Waters Brackish Tidal Systems Subterranean Artificial Wetlands Conservation Management Conclusions Acknowledgments References World Terrestrial Ecosystems Acknowledgments References Section 1: Islands and Atolls - Life in and Surrounded by Water Islands and Atolls of the World Overview—Islands and Atolls Cross-Reference to Papers in the Islands and Atolls Section Summary of the Section’s Papers Summary References Global Islands References Island Biogeography Revisited Abstract What Is Island Biogeography? History of Island Biogeography Immigration, Evolution, Extinction Island Area and Isolation Immigration Is Higher Due to Human Introductions Evolution in Response to Human Impacts Human-Caused Extinction Is Higher on Islands Island Biogeography Revisited for the Anthropocene References Island Biogeography of Marine Shallow-Water Organisms Introduction Classical Theories of Island Biogeography: Predicted Patterns Island Biogeography Patterns and Process of Marine Shallow-Water Organisms Taxonomic Approach Species–area relationship Species–isolation relationship Species–age relationship Multivariables models for species richness Functional Approach on Island Biogeography Functional island biogeography for marine shallow-water species Speciation and Endemism Patterns in Marine Shallow-Water Habitats Methodological Caveats for Marine Shallow-Water Island Biogeography References How Consideration of Islands Has Inspired Mainstream Ecology: Links Between the Theory of Island Biogeography and Some Othe ... Abstract References The Effect of Sea Level Rise on Islands and Atolls Introduction Climate Change and Sea Level Rise Climate Change Sea Level Rise Regional Effects of Sea Level Rise Ecological Impacts Socioeconomic and Cultural Impacts Mitigation References Arctic Ocean Islands Abstract Introduction Pleistocene and Holocene Histories Terrestrial Ecosystems Flora Oceanography Terrestrial Vertebrates Mammals Birds Marine Ecosystems Mammals Seabirds Biogeography Human Influence Conservation Resource Extraction Tourism and Other Human Disturbance Pollution Military Installations ProtectedAreas Climate Change and the Future of the High Arctic Fauna andFlora References Further Reading The Azores Archipelago: Biodiversity Erosion and Conservation Biogeography Abstract The Azores Archipelago Drivers of Biodiversity Erosion Habitat Changes Human Induced Climate Changes Exotic Species and Invasive Alien Species Pollution and Contamination Indirect Drivers of Biodiversity Erosion Conservation Biogeography Present Answers and Future Prospects Acknowledgment References Relevant Websites Climate Change and Biodiversity Conservation in the Caribbean Islands Introduction Climate Change Rainfall Air Temperature Sea Surface Temperature Sea Level Rise Biodiversity and Conservation Conclusions Acknowledgments References Further Reading An Overview of the Socio-Ecological System of Cays and Islets in the US Caribbean and Their Vulnerability to Climate Change Introduction Island Type Descriptions Ecological Value of Cays Social Value of Cays Climate Change Effects Climate Change Vulnerability Acknowledgments References Physical Geography of the Hawaiian Islands Geography Geology Substratum Climate Rainfall Trade Winds and Kona Storms Hydrology Hawaiian Archipelago: Island Descriptions Hawaitnqh_699i Maui-Nui Maui Nui: Maui Maui Nui: Kahotnqh_699olawe Maui Nui: Lānatnqh_699i Maui Nui: Molokatnqh_699i Otnqh_699ahu Kauatnqh_699i Nitnqh_699ihau Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Nihoa Mokumanamana (Necker Island) Kānemilohatnqh_699i (French Frigate Shoals) Pūhāhonu (Gardner Pinnacles) Kotnqh_699anakotnqh_699a, Nalukākala (Maro Reef) Kauō (Laysan Island) Lisianski (Papatnqh_699āpoho) and Neva Shoal Holoikauaua (Pearl and Hermes Atoll) Pihemanu (Midway Atoll) Mokupāpapa (Kure Atoll) References Relevant Websites Hawaiian Islands Coastal Ecosystems: Past, Present, and Future Introduction Description Defining Hawaiian Islands Coastal Ecosystems Pre-human Condition Coastal Ecosystem Viability Current Condition Coastal dry communities Coastal wet-mesic communities Current Biotic Components of Coastal Ecosystems Stressors Development Biosecurity Invasive animals Invasive insects Invasive plants Fire Storms Flooding and erosion Sea level rise Interactive conservation actions Summary of Interactions Future Scenarios Future Scenario One Future Scenario Two Future Scenario Three Future Scenario Four References Physical Geography of the Mariana Archipelago Geography Geology Substratum Hydrology Climate Temperature, Rainfall, and Monsoon Season Mariana Archipelago: Island Descriptions Guam Rota Aguiguan Tinian Saipan Farallon de Medinilla Anatahan Sarigan Guguan Alamagan Pagan Agrihan Asuncion Maug Uracas References Relevant Websites Coastal Strand and Mangrove Swamps of the Mariana Islands Introduction Geology Coastal Ecotype Description Pre-Human Condition Current Condition Stressors Climate Change Development Invasive Species Pollution Sedimentation/Erosion Typhoons Conservation Opportunities Guam Coastal and Estuarine Land Conservation Program Plan Cleanup Activities Erosion Control Invasive Species Management and Control Activities Interactions of Stressors, Conservation Actions, Protected Designations and Laws and Regulations Future Scenarios References Galápagos Island Biodiversity Abstract Introduction Human History of the Islands Darwin and the Voyage of the Beagle Galápagos Environments VegetationZones Geologic Setting Island Biogeography and Biodiversity Migration Routes to the Galápagos East Pacific tracks Pacific tracks DNA Evidence Biogeographic Modeling Origins of Galápagos Insects Vertebrate Fauna of the Islands Giant tortoises Galápagos iguanas Conservation Issues History of protection of the islands Marine biosecurity Conclusions References The Island Biogeography of Wallacea and KrakatoaIsland Abstract Wallacea Introduction Biodiversity SulawesiIsland Lesser Sunda Islands Molucca Islands Threats to Wallace Biodiversity and Conservation Efforts Krakatoa Introduction Post 1883 Eruption: Current Activity Biological Studies Biogeography and Biodiversity Acknowledgment References Further Reading Biogeography and Chemical Risks on Islands Introduction Biodiversity Trends of Flora Biodiversity Trends of Fauna Portmanteau Biota Required Conditions for Biodiversity Chemical Risks Conclusions Acknowledgments References Collaborative Conservation in the Madrean Sky Islands The Madrean Sky Islands: Where Deserts Meet Mountains Ecology of the Sky Islands Biodiversity Biomes Riparian Ecosystems Connectivity Geography and Human Uses Human Communities Human Use Stressors and Threats in the Sky Islands Collaborative Conservation in the Sky Islands The Need for Large-Landscape Conservation Landscape Conservation Design Madrean Watersheds Landscape Conservation Design: Process, Outcomes, and Products Process Summary Shared Values and Goals, Information Gathering, and Challenges Establishment of the Coordinating Team Collaborative Vision, Management Strategies, and Priority Ecosystems Selection of Indicators of Landscape Health Formation of Topical Teams Development of Tools and Products Lessons Learned From the Madrean LCD Overview Establishing a Foundation Maintaining Momentum at Multiple Scales Diversifying Funding Sources Participating Across Borders Institutionalizing Partner Engagement What’s Next for Collaborative Conservation in the Sky Islands? References Section 2: Mountains (Alpine Systems) - Life at the Top Overview of Mountains (Alpine Systems): Life at the Top Introduction Climatic Controls of High Elevation Treelines Regional Studies North America South America Africa Asia New Zealand and Polynesia Current Human Impacts on Alpine Ecosystems Conclusions References Patterns and Controls on the Productivity and Plant Diversity of Alpine Ecosystems Introduction Is Alpine Tundra the Same as Arctic Tundra? Alpine Plant Communities Measuring Plant Diversity and Productivity in the Alpine Patterns of Plant Diversity and Richness in Alpine Habitats The Productivity of Alpine Ecosystems How Resource Availability Sculpts the Diversity and Productivity of the Alpine The Relationship Between Diversity and Productivity of the Alpine The Alpine in the Anthropocene: Anticipated Changes in the Coming Decades Acknowledgements References Further Reading Climatic Controls of the Global High Elevation Treelines The Life Form Concept Definition of Treeline What Determines Undisturbed Treeline Position? Why is the Climatic Treeline Where it is? Krummholz Tree Recruitment Future Treelines Summary References Nature of Alpine Ecosystems in Tropical Mountains of South America Introduction Mountains of South America and Their Grasslands Grasslands Types of Tropical Alpine Grasslands and Their Ecology Páramos Climate Geology and soil Vegetation Fauna Puna Climate Geology and soil Vegetation Fauna Brazilian Campos de altitude Climate Geology and soil Vegetation Ecosystem Services of Alpine Grasslands Conservation of Alpine Grasslands Threats Human use and disturbance Páramos Punas Campos de altitude Climate change Climate Change Forecasts Knowledge Gaps Conservation Status Conclusion References Nature of Alpine Ecosystems in Tropical Mountains of Africa Introduction Flora and Vegetation High Elevation Treeline Climate-Induced Adaptive Ecophysiology Socio-Ecological Drivers Phytogeography and Endemism Conclusion Final Thoughts References Further Reading Nature of Alpine Ecosystems in the Tropical Mountains of Asia Introduction Alpine Environments in the Asian Tropics Main Vegetation Communities Above Treeline Heath and Open Dwarf Shrublands Grasslands and Herb Fields Wetlands Fauna Human Usage References Alpine Ecosystems in Temperate Mountains of North America Introduction Temperate Zone Mountains Environmental Factors Climate Geomorphology and Soils Mesotopographic and Microtopographic Gradients Biodiversity Vegetation Plant Species Vertebrate Species Anthropogenic Impacts Global Change Effects Nitrogen Deposition Climate Change Conservation Conclusions References Further Reading Relevant Websites Alpine Plant Diversity in Temperate Mountains of South America Introduction Physical Setting Climatic Variation Limits of the Alpine Vegetation in the Temperate Andes Vegetation of the Dry Temperate Andes Vegetation of the Wet Temperate Andes Diversity of Life Forms Abiotic Determinants of Alpine Plant Diversity of the Temperate Andes Biotic Determinants of Alpine Plant Diversity of the Temperate Andes Origin of the Alpine Flora of the Temperate Andes Current Conservation Status Conclusions References Nature of Alpine Ecosystems in Temperate Mountains of New Zealand Origin of the New Zealand Alpine Zone Habitat Types Flora and Fauna Pollination Biology Mast-Flowering Principal Anthropogenic Stressors and Trends Changing Climatic Conditions Conservation Strategies Conclusions References Climate Change Impacts in the Himalayan Mountain Ecosystems Abstract Introduction: Climate Change in the Himalaya Impacts on Food Production Systems and Livelihoods Impacts on Biodiversity and Forest Ecosystems Impact of Climate Change on People Issues for Future Action Acknowledgment References Plant Adaptations to Alpine Environments Abstract The AlpineBiome Life Forms of Plants That Shape the Alpine Ecosystem Alpine Life Conditions Alpine PlantLife The Alpine Biome Under Global Change References Further Reading Plant Diversity in Páramo—Neotropical High Mountain Humid Grasslands Introduction: Description and Distribution of Páramo Biogeography Geological History Connectivity and Isolation Plant Richness and Endemism Impact of Human Activities on Páramo Plant Diversity References Afro-Alpine Plant Diversity in the Tropical Mountains of Africa Glossary Abstract The Afro-Alpine Zone on Tropical African Mountains Introduction Floristic Diversity Data availability and constraints Flowering plant diversity in the Afro-alpine Fern diversity in the Afro-alpine Moss diversity in the Afro-alpine Comments on liverwort and lichen diversity in the Afro-alpine Endemism Data sources and constraints Flowering plants Mosses and liverwort endemism in the Afro-alpine Characteristic Species and Communities Drivers of Plant Diversity and Endemism in the Afro-Alpine Global Comparisons Future ResearchNeeds The Delimitation Problem The Continued Need for Comprehensive Fieldwork, Data Inventory, and Taxonomic Investigation Climate Change and Conservation Acknowledgment References Further Reading Relevant Websites Alpine Vegetation of Temperate Mountains of Southern Africa Introduction Typical Plant Species of the Southern African Vegetation Belts Afromontane Vegetation Belt (1800–2800m) Sub-Alpine Belt (2800–3600m) Environmental and Ecological Drivers Landscape and Climate Wind Fire Animals Adaptations of Vegetation Biodiversity and Conservation Importance Threats to the Ecosystem Towards the Future References Alpine Plant Diversity in Temperate Mountains of Asia Location, Distribution and Ecological Condition Plant Diversity References Nature of Alpine Soils Introduction Alpine Soil Characteristics Large Scale Processes and Landforms Medium Scale Processes and Landforms Fine Scale Processes and Landforms Soil Formation Sources of Soil Materials Permafrost and Periglacial Features Cryoturbation Patterned Ground Solifluction Nivation Impacts of Climate Change Snow Cover Permafrost Degradation Alpine Soil Changes Conclusions References Cold Adaptations of Alpine Insects Introduction Alpine Insect Life Alpine Insect Life Cycles Melanism and Reduced Body Size Brachyptery Behavioral Adaptations Dietary Adaptations Selection of Overwintering Sites Cold-Temperature Physiology Acclimation and Cooling Rates Freeze Tolerance and Freeze Avoidance Desiccation Tolerance Conclusions References Alpine Insect Distribution Patterns Introduction DNA Evidence Fossil Beetle Evidence—North America Fossil Beetle Evidence—Europe Conclusions References Alpine Mammals of South America Abstract Introduction Distribution Patterns Order Accounts Ungulates (Order Cetartiodactyla) Family Camelidae Family Cervidae Carnivores (Order Carnivora) Bats (Order Chiroptera) Armadillos (Order Cingulata) Opossums (Order Didelphimorphia) Shrews (Order Eulipothyphla) Shrew Opossums (Order Paucituberculata) Páramo Rabbit (Order Lagomorpha) Mountain Tapir (Order Perissodactyla) Rodents (Order Rodentia) Concluding Remarks Appendix: Supplementary Material Appendix: Supplementary material References Alpine Mammals of Africa Definition and Distribution of African Alpine (Afroalpine) Region African Alpine Mammals Rodents Adaptations to Afroalpine Life Case Study 1: African Ice Rat Otomys sloggetti robertsi Case Study 2: The Ethiopian Wolf Threats to African Alpine Environment Concluding Remarks References Further Reading Relevant Websites Asian Alpine Mammals Abstract Introduction Regional Environments Human Population of Asian Mountain Regions Mammals of the Asian Alpine IUCN Classifications Small Mammals (Fig.2) Voles Ground squirrels and marmots Hares andpikas Large Mammals (Fig.5) Bovids, gazelles, and wildyaks Cervids: Deer, elk, andmoose Predators (Fig.6) Felidae (cats, lynx, tiger, and snow leopard) Canids (wolves, foxes, jackals, anddhole) Family mustelidae (weasels, wolverine, and badgers) Multi-Country Conservation Efforts References Alpine Birds of South America Introduction History of Alpine Birds of South America Alpine Birds of South America and Their Ecosystems Paramos Puna High-Andean Wetlands High-Elevation Forests Polylepis forest Human-Modified Areas Glaciers Vulnerability to Climate Change and Conservation References Further Reading Relevant Websites Alpine Birds of Africa Introduction The African Alpine Biome Geographic Delimitation Characteristics Habitats The Afroalpine Birdlife Delimitation of Afroalpine Avifauna Birds of the Afroalpine Obligate Biome-Confined Breeding Residents (Group 1) Regular Biome-Affiliated Residents (Group 2) Facultative Biome-Affiliated Residents (Group 3) Opportunistic Residents and Visitors (Group 4) Noteworthy Distributional Peculiarities Community Transition Patterns Comparison With Avifaunas of Other Alpine Biomes Conservation Aspects Perspectives Conclusions References Biogeography of South American Highlands Abstract Introduction ThePast Andean Uplift and Altitudinal Migrations Geographic Isolation and Latitudinal Migration Routes Glaciations and Taxonomic Diversification Human Influence The Present Effects of Latitude (ContinentalScale) Effects of Regional Parameters Biogenic Amelioration of Habitats (LocalScale) The Future Global Change Biodiversity Response Invasive Species and Non-Analog Communities Other Alpine Environments of South America Conclusion References Further Reading Biogeography of North American Highlands Introduction to North American Mountain Regions Major Highland Areas Biotic Challenges and Biotic Zones in Highland Habitats Cloud Forest Biome Subalpine Biome Alpine Biome North American Highland Habitats Through Time Sierra Nevada Mountains Rocky Mountains Appalachian Mountains Biodiversity and Biogeography of North American Mountains The Alpine Biome in North America Mexican Cloud Forests Conservation of North American Highlands References Biogeography of the Mountain Ranges of South Asia Introduction The Aravallis, India Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity The Eastern Ghats, India Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity The Himalaya, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity The Hindu Kush, Afghanistan and Pakistan Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity Karakoram–Pamir, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity Kirthar Mountains, Pakistan Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity Knuckles Mountain Range, Sri Lanka River and Drainage Biodiversity Pamir Mountain Range, Afghanistan Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity The Salt Range, Pakistan Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity Sulaiman Mountains, Afghanistan and Pakistan River and Drainage Biodiversity Toba Kakkar Range, Afghanistan and Pakistan Biodiversity The Western Ghats, India Rivers and Drainage Biodiversity Summary References Further Reading A History of Human Exploitation of Alpine Regions Introduction Alpine Biomes—Regional Variation Definition of vertical ecological zones Defining mountain landscapes The Holocene climate, environment and landscape Mesolithic Activity Neolithic Early human impact on the (sub)alpine zone end the development of pastoralism—The transition from the Neolithic to the Chal ... Chalcolithic to Bronze Age Pastoralism, lactase persistence and niche creation Mining as a driver of landscape change The receding treeline Mountain erosion dynamics Iron Age Climate Changes in pastoral systems and impact on the landscape Mining and impact on alpine environments The Roman Period Climate Changes in pastoralism and impact on the landscape Mining Medieval to Post-Medieval Periods Climate Changes in pastoral systems and environmental consequences Acknowledgments References Contemporary Human Impacts on Alpine Ecosystems: The Direct and Indirect Effects of Human-Induced Climate Change and Land Use Changing Alpine Systems Alpine Species Responses to Change Novel Species in the Alpine Grazing and Human Development Impacts on Alpine Systems Recreation and Tourism in Alpine Systems Conclusions and Future Directions Acknowledgments References Ongoing Change in the Alpine Biome of North America Alpine Change Climate Change Expected Responses Observed Responses Complicating Factors Abiotic complications Biotic complications Spatial complications Temporal complications Nitrogen Flux Invasive Species Habitat Destruction and Deterioration Consequences of Change Biodiversity Water Carbon Flux Aesthetics and Recreation Summary References Current Changes in Alpine Ecosystems ofAsia Abstract Introduction Climate Change-Induced Effects in Alpine Life Zones ofAsia Climatic Changes Impacts on Physical Systems Biotic Responses Effects of Land Use Changes in Alpine Life Zones ofAsia Conclusions References Current Changes in Alpine Ecosystems of New Guinea The Alpine across New Guinea Successional Change Invasive Species Possible Impacts of Climate Change Disturbance: Fire, Development, Tourism Discussion References Current Changes in Alpine Ecosystems of Pacific Islands Introduction High Elevation Ecosystems in Pacific Islands Geologic Setting Climatology Ecological Zones and Plant Communities Cultural Significance and Human Impacts Current Changes Changes in Native and Invasive Species Observed Climate Changes and Impacts Future Projected Climate Changes Concluding Remarks References Relevant Websites Volume 2 Deserts: Life in the Extremes What Are Deserts and Where Are They Found? Deserts Are Biodiverse Places Benefits and Uses of Deserts Conservation Status Conservation Needs References Relevant Websites Section 3: Deserts - Life in the Extremes Desert Biodiversity-Worlds Hot Spots/Globally Outstanding Biodiverse Deserts Abstract Introduction Biodiversity Research in Desert Biomes Desert Biodiversity in Numbers Biodiversity Patterns in Desert Biomes Evolutionary Processes in Desert Biomes Adaptations to Desert Biomes Threats to Biodiversity in Desert Biomes Biodiversity Conservation in Desert Biomes Acknowledgment References The Ecohydrology of Desert Environments: What Makes it Distinctive? Introduction Why Are Drylands and Their Ecohydrology Globally Important? Rainfall in Drylands Interannual Variability in Rainfall, Including Drought, in Drylands Taking a Longer-Term View of Dryland Rainfall The Fate of Rainfall Near the Groundsurface: Canopy and Litter Interception and Stemflow Fog and Dew in Drylands Dryland Shrubs as “Ecosystem Engineers” Biological Soil Crusts and the Fate of Rainfall Dryland Responses to Climatic and Environmental Changes: Vulnerability and Resilience Expansion of Arid and Semi-Arid Regions Globally Drought and Ecohydrology in the Global Drylands under Climate Change Encroachment of Woody Plants in the Drylands Collapse of Self-Organized Dryland Vegetation Systems Precipitation in a Future Warmer World Conclusions: Revisiting the Ecohyrologic Definition of “Desert” References Desert Oasis Springs: Ecohydrology, Biocultural Diversity, Mythology, and Societal Implications Introduction Characterization of Sonoran Desert Springs and Oases Evolutionary Ecology and Diversity Indigenous Use of Springs Ecosystems Old World and New World Influences in Oasis Agriculture Urban Up-Scaling the Myth of the Oasis Sonoran Desert Springs in the Future Conclusions Acknowledgments References Desert Rarity, Endemism and Uniqueness Global Distribution Patterns Sky-Islands and Fog Deserts Species Migrations and Biotic Considerations Rarity Desert Biogeography Latitudinal Desert Belts Continentality and Inland Deserts Coastal Deserts and Fog Deserts Rain Shadows and Tropical Deserts Desert Landforms Rainfall Pulses Geographic Origins Afrotropic Realm: Deserts of East and Southern Africa Australasian Realm: Deserts of Australia Indo-Malay Realm: Deserts of India and Pakistan Nearctic Realm: Deserts of North America Neotropic Realm: Deserts of South America Palearctic Realm: Deserts of central Asia, the Middle East, and Northern Africa Convergence Conclusion References Further Reading Desert Biogeography: Sahara-Sahel Biodiversity Patterns Abstract Introduction Biodiversity Distribution Patterns Acknowledgment References The High Desert Biome: Flora, Fauna and Geology of the Northern Great Basin The High Desert Biome The Great Basin The Northern Great Basin Geology Geologic Provinces Volcanism Fault Systems Climate Plant Communities of the Northern Great Basin Sagebrush Steppe Understory Salt Desert Scrub Riparian Areas Tree Communities Fauna of the Northern Great Basin Mammals Birds Reptiles and Amphibians Threats to Biodiversity References Further Reading Relevant Websites Shifting Winds in the Mongolian Gobi Desert: Nature and Traditions Face the Modern Era Introduction Development Frontiers and the Challenge of Mitigation Planning for Conservation and Mitigation in Mongolia New Protection and Avoidance Outcomes Offset Outcomes Additional Applications of Landscape Planning Framework Additional Challenges Conclusion References Adaptations of Large Carnivores to the Arid Kalahari Introduction The Arid Kalahari Methods Results Large Carnivore Densities Diet and Prey Selection Foraging Behavior Interspecific Relations Conclusion References Conservation Strategies for Managing Threatened Species and Desert Landscapes: Experiences From a Biodiversity Offset Trust Introduction Method Stakeholder Engagement and Partnerships Experts in the field Adaptive Management Partners Mining and exploration operations Traditional Owners Collaborations and knowledge sharing Building on Existing Knowledge/Maximum Utility of Funds Biodiversity conservation plan Desktop studies Remote sensing Multipurpose On-ground Efforts Camera studies Pitfall trapping and long walks Conclusion and Key Challenges References Desert Biogeography: Mojave Abstract Introduction Where Is the Mojave Desert? The Driest, Hottest, Place in North America Vegetation Shrublands Riparian Habitat Mojave DesertFauna Biogeography Species Connectivity Biogeographic Isolation and Landscape Connectivity The Anthropocene Conclusions Acknowledgment References The Sonoran Desert A Unique Ecoregion Geologic History Defining the Ecoregion Vegetative Subdivisions of the Sonoran Desert Lower Colorado River Valley Arizona Upland Central Gulf Coast Plains of Sonora Climate Representative Sonoran Desert Animals Arthropods Birds Mammals Fishes and Amphibians Reptiles Indigenous Peoples and Colonization Threats to Biodiversity Climate Change Invasive Species Livestock Grazing Border Wall Land Conversion and Loss of Riparian Habitat Conservation Status and Planning (Fig. 13) Mexico United States The future of the Sonoran Desert References The Chihuahuan Desert: A Binational Conservation Response to Protect a Global Treasure Introducing the Chihuahuan Desert Threats Habitat Loss and Fragmentation Climate Change Changes in Wildfire Regimes Deterioration of Freshwater Ecosystems Conservation Response International National Local—Examples From the Field Working with private landowners Working with ranchers to stem soil erosion in the upper Rio Conchos Water harvesting with Raramuri communities Understanding and managing changing fire regimes Protecting freshwater ecosystems Native fish conservation Binational effort to bring back the Rio Grande/Bravo in Big Bend Working with ranchers to protect key Rio Grande/Bravo tributaries Looking to the Future References Biodiversity of Perennial Vegetation in the Desert Regions of Baja California and Baja California Sur, Mexico Introduction Methods Used for Mapping Perennial Vegetation Categorization of Taxa Biogeography of the Desert Vegetation in Baja California Distribution of Agaves Ocotillos Biodiversity of Cacti and Succulent Plants Riparian Vegetation Perennial Vegetation Climate and Perennial Plant Biodiversity Long-Term Threats to the Desert Vegetation of Baja California Summary Acknowledgments References The Gibson, Great Sandy, and Little Sandy Deserts of Australia Location and Introduction Biophysical Environment Current Climate Climate History Geology and Landforms Vegetation Hummock grasslands Shrubland Mulga woodland Eucalypt woodland Saltmarsh Salt lakes Flora Fauna Hydrology and Wetlands Cultural and Social Context Conservation and Management Threats to Biodiversity Protected Areas and Land Tenure Summary and Conclusions References Patagonian Desert Abstract Patagonia Climate Landscapes andSoils Vegetation: Description of the Main Plant Communities and Their Relationship With Climatic Gradients Phytogeographic Province: Patagonia Grass Steppes Low Shrub-Grass Steppes Sub-Shrubs Steppes Phytogeographic Province:Monte Patagonia-Monte Ecotone NativeFauna Principal Anthropogenic Stressors Grazing Fires Global Climatic Change Effects Monitoring System Conservation Strategies Rangelands Evaluation for Sustainable Grazing Management Concluding Remarks References The Namib Desert and Its Bats Desert Biodiversity Global Patterns in Species Richness An Overview of the Namib Desert Namib Desert Biodiversity Bat Natural History and Species Richness Patterns Study Area Bats of the Northern Namib Desert Key Threats to Bats of the Northern Namib Desert Additional Threats to Namib Desert Biodiversity History, Land Use, and Conservation Opportunities Conclusions References Desert Conservation and Management: Biodiversity Loss What Are Deserts? Conserving and Protecting Deserts Principal Anthropogenic Threats to Desert Ecosystems Deserts and Climate Change Conservation Strategies for Maintaining Deserts in an Increasingly Human-Dominated World (Anthromes) Conclusions References The Sahara Desert Hydroclimate and Expanse: Natural Variability and Climate Change Introduction Datasets and Analysis Method Observational Datasets Desert Expansion Statistical Significance Seasonal Climatology Centennial Trends in Surface Air Temperature and Precipitation Change in Sahara Desert Expanse Over 20th Century Sahara’s Advance Sahara’s Expanse Sahara’s Expanse: Variation and Potential Mechanisms Concluding Remarks References Desert Conservation and Management: Biodiversity Threats From Invasive Weeds Weeds Characteristics Dispersal Fire Biological Soil Crusts Invasive Weed Management Strategic Concepts Adaptive management Justification for invasive weed management Prevention, regulation, and ecosystem maintenance Early detection, monitoring and response Satellite populations Coordination with neighbors Control versus eradication Inventory Prioritizing Weed Species and Sites in Deserts Prioritizing species Prioritizing sites Treatment Restoration Explaining Invasions The Future References Relevant Websites Livestock Impacts on Deserts Introduction Specific Livestock Impacts Soil Crusts Soil Compaction and Trampling Riparian Areas Forage Competition Invasives and Weeds Water Competition Disease Transmission to Wild Animals Predator Control Pest Control Carbon Storage Vegetation Loss Climate Change Conclusions References Mechanical Recreation Impacts on Desert Ecosystems Weed Distribution Soil Impacts Vegetation Impacts Wildlife Impacts Zone of Influence Social Factors Demographics Conclusions References Desert Conservation and Management: Development Impacts, Thar Desert,India Abstract Introduction Salient Features of the Thar Desert Region Importance of Livestock in Rajasthan Thar Desert Region: The Human, Crop and Animal Dynamics Materials and Methods Direction of Land Use Change Development Indicators Results and Discussion Changing Land Use Pattern Development and Desertification Key Findings for Policy Makers Conclusions References Desert Conservation and Management: Energy Deserts are Biologically Unique Solar Energy Photovoltaic (PV) Panels Solar Thermal Power Towers Solar Trough Wind Energy Geothermal Energy Storage Threats From Industrialization Land Use Planning Smart Renewable Energy Solutions Conclusion References Relevant Websites Protected Areas and Connectivity Why We Need to Protect Deserts? Protection Coverage of Deserts Importance of Connectivity for Desert Species Distribution of Desert Species Anthropogenic Impacts on Desert Species Climate Change and Desert Habitat Connectivity Landscape Connectivity in Deserts Hydrological Connectivity Deserts Landscape Heterogeneity and Connectivity Role of Desert Oases in Maintaining Connectivity Conclusion References Relevant Websites Desert Conservation and Management: Ecotourism Abstract Introduction Brief History of Ecotourism and Its Research on Deserts Potentials and Constraints of Deserts to Develop Ecotourism Desert Attraction Elements for Ecotourism Development Natural features Human features Constraints to Ecotourism Development Security conditions Under-developed conditions Political conditions Increasing accessibility Exploitation of natural resources Impacts of Ecotourism on Different Desert Facets Ecological Impacts Positive Negative Economic Impacts Positive Negative Sociocultural Impacts Positive Negative Conclusions Acknowledgment References Relevant Websites Section 4: Ice Sheets and Polar Deserts - Ice of Life Overview: Ice Sheets and Polar Deserts—Ice of Life Introduction Life in Antarctica Plankton Marine Mammals Life in the High Arctic Marine Life Terrestrial Vegetation Terrestrial Mammals Conclusions References Climates of Tundra and Alpine Biomes Introduction Tundra and Treelines General Features Forest-Tundra Ecotone (Treeline) Polar Desert Antarctic Tundra Alpine Biome General Features Variations in Alpine Treelines Tibetan Plateau Effects of Climate Change References The Nature of Arctic Soils Introduction Northern Circumpolar Region Soil-Forming Processes and Soil Characteristics Soil Genesis and Soil Classification Soil Organic Carbon and Climate Change Conclusion References Permafrost Landscape Features Introduction Hummocks Ice-Wedge Polygons Ice-Wedge Development Polygon Rims Polygon Development Pingos Closed-System Pingos Open-System Pingos Thermokarst Lakes Lake Growth Talik Configuration Lake Orientation Drainage Thaw Lake Cycle Retrogressive Thaw Slumps Conclusion Acknowledgment References Cold Adaptations of Tundra Insects Abstract Introduction Insect Life in the Polar Regions Arctic Insect Life Cycles Melanism and BodySize Brachyptery Behavioral Adaptations Dietary Adaptations Selection of OverwinteringSites Cold-Temperature Physiology Acclimation and CoolingRates Freeze Tolerance and Freeze Avoidance Desiccation Tolerance Case Studies of Insect Cold-Hardiness Conclusions References Further Reading Arctic Insect Distribution Patterns Introduction Trends in Arctic Diversity Russian Arctic North America Greenland Chironomid Abundance and Diversity Distribution Patterns of Greenland Insect Fauna Svalbard Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya The Beringian Refuge Arctic Insects and Climate Change References Further Reading Arctic Tundra Mammals Abstract Introduction History, Biogeography, and Ecology-Development of the Arctic Tundra Mammal Assemblage ThroughTime Ice-Age Climate Quaternary Biogeography Split Origins of Arctic Mammals Ecology of Arctic Mammals Past and Present Research Priorities and Outlook Lineage Diversification, Warm and Cold Refugia, and Geographic Discontinuities Holocene Environments and Anthropogenic Impacts Contact Zone Community Dynamics and Co-evolution Future Prospects Acknowledgment References Further Reading Colonization of the Eurasian Arctic Introduction Earliest Human Occupation of the Arctic The MIS 3 Interstadial Identity of Earliest Arctic Peoples Important Technological Innovations Life in a Treeless Landscape Mammoth Hunting Events of the Last Glacial Maximum Holocene History Bronze Age Iron Age Conclusions References Colonization of the Arctic in the New World Introduction The Beringian Standstill Hypothesis Dispersal Routes Out of Alaska Changing Arctic Environments A Possible Human Refuge on the Land Bridge Potential Size of the Isolated Population Hunting Excursions in Eastern Beringia Late Glacial and Early Holocene Sites in Alaska Importance of Dog Sledding Spread of Arctic Peoples in the Late Holocene Abundance of Arctic Marine Resources Metallurgy in the Arctic Concluding Comments References Human Impacts on Arctic Ecosystems Introduction Threats to the High Arctic Declining Sea Ice (Global Warming) Biological Impacts Oil and Gas Development Navigation of High Arctic Waters Pollution Following the mercury trail Threats to the Low Arctic Population Pressure Chemical Pollution and Vehicular Damage Climate Change and Permafrost Melt Fossil Fuels Development Fisheries Nuclear Testing Concluding Remarks References Website References Current Ecosystem Changes in the Arctic Introduction The Physical Environment Land vs sea areas Arctic Ocean circulation Cryosphere Arctic soils Climates Summary of Existing Ecosystems Birds Fish Marine mammals Terrestrial mammals Terrestrial vegetation Ecosystem Changes Caused by Climate Forcing Warming of the Land Permafrost Degradation Land Ice Losses Changing Plant Communities Changes in Vertebrate Faunas Warming of the Seas Loss of sea-ice plankton communities Loss of sea-ice platform for marine mammals Shifting patterns of ocean fish stocks Impacts of warming seas on marine mammals Ecosystem Changes Caused by Regional and Exotic Sources of Pollution Pollution From Arctic Sources Local sources (Russian industry in Kola Peninsula and W Siberia) Long-distance transport of aerial pollutants Effects of global warming on Arctic pollutants Effects of air pollution on terrestrial ecosystems Pollution in the Arctic Ocean and Adjacent Seas Local sources Long-distance transport of chemical pollutants Effects of ocean pollution on Arctic ecosystems Conclusions References Herbivory in Arctic Ecosystems Abstract Introduction Arctic Herbivores Responses of Tundra Plants to Herbivory Responses to Biomass Removal Responses to Altered Nutrient Availability Responses to Altered Physical Environment Effects of Herbivory on Ecosystem Processes in the Arctic Effects of Herbivores on Nutrient Cycling Effects of Herbivores on Climate Feedbacks and Energy Budgets of Tundra Invertebrate Herbivory in Tundra Trends and the Future Climate Change Human Management Future Directions References Relevant Website Climate of the High Arctic Essential Features of the Arctic climate Arctic Amplification Consequences of Arctic Amplification Future of the Arctic Climate Micro-Climates The Urban Arctic References Relevant Webpages High Arctic Vegetation Abstract Distribution and Borders Climatic Distinctiveness Plant Biodiversity Vegetation Typology Barrens Graminoid Tundras Prostrate-Shrub Tundras Wetlands Zoo-Anthropogenic Disturbed Vegetation Initial Vegetation Environmental Factors Controlling Vegetation Differentiation Seabird Influence Plant Adaptations and GrowthForms Anthropogenic Impact Effects of Climate Change Other Threats References Relevant Websites Mammals of the High Arctic Introduction Terrestrial Mammals Small Terrestrial Mammals Lemmings Tundra shrew Arctic ground squirrel Large Terrestrial Mammals Caribou Muskox Gray wolf Brown bear and Polar bear Conclusions References Plankton of the Open ArcticOcean Abstract Introduction Metazoan Zooplankton Microbial Plankton Chlorophyta Cryptophyceae Stramenopiles-Heterokonts Chrysophyceae Pelagophyceae Dictyochophyceae Bolidophyceae-Parmales Diatoms Marine Stramenopiles(MASTs) Haptophyta Alveolates Dinoflagellata Ciliates Other Heterotrophic Groups Rhizaria Choanoflagellata Microbialfungi Incertaesedis Bacteria and Archaea Cyanobacteria Heterotrophic bacteria Archaea Summary Statement References Life in Arctic Sea Ice Introduction and Outline Macro- and Microscale Habitat Properties of Sea Ice Seasonal Changes in Sea Ice Extend Across the Arctic Ocean The Microscale Brine Channel System Within Arctic Sea Ice Diversity of the Arctic Sea Ice Biota Seasonal Development of the Arctic Sea Ice Biota Fall/Winter Spring Summer Climate Change and the Arctic Sea Ice Habitat References Further Reading Relevant Websites Life In and Around Arctic Ice Sheets and Glaciers Abstract Introduction-What Is the Primary Succession Process? Climate Change and Glacier Recession History of Primary Succession Studies in the Glacier Forelands Main Colonizers Cyanobacteria Lichens Bryophytes Vascular Plants A Case Study-Primary Succession in Glacier Forelands of the Svalbard Archipelago StudyArea Longyearbreen Rieperbreen Irenebreen Gåsbreen Methodological Approach Vegetation Development and Order of Species Colonization Environmental Factors Influencing Life Around Arctic Glaciers References Further Reading Threats to Arctic Ecosystems Abstract Contaminants Mercury Radioactivity Persistent Organic Pollutants (see Table1 for Acronyms) Plastics Ocean Acidification Global Warming References Greenland Climates Introduction Ocean Currents and Sea Ice Around Greenland Atmospheric Circulation and Wind Patterns Regional Circulation and Wind Patterns Circulation and Wind Patterns Related to the Greenland Ice Sheet Local Wind Patterns Temperature and Precipitation The Greenland Inland Ice Sheet Ice-Free Greenland Latitudinal gradients Longitudinal differences Coast-inland gradients Terrestrial Ecosystems The North Atlantic Oscillation and Its Effect on Greenland Climates Acknowledgments References Further Reading Terrestrial Ecosystems of West Greenland Introduction Physical Setting: Geology and Climate Geology Climate Climate History Vegetation and Soils Modern Vegetation Distribution Soils Vegetation History: Immigration and Climate Biotic Interactions Cultural-Vegetation-Landscape Interactions Recent Warming and Environmental Change Synthesis: Climate-Landscape Synergies in West Greenland Further Reading References Birds of Greenland Introduction Bird Diversity Inland Birds Seabirds Endemics Migration Greenland as Winter Quarter Biogeography Humans and Birds Climate Change Bird Conservation in Greenland References Marine Mammals of the Greenland Seas Sea Ice, Climate Change and Marine Mammals in Greenland Regions Around Greenland and Seasonal Marine Mammal Occurrence Marine Mammals and People in Greenland Biology, Status and Utilization of Marine Mammals in Greenland Polar Bear Atlantic Walrus Seals Arctic Cetaceans Boreal Cetaceans Conservation Status of Marine Mammals in Greenland References History of Human Occupation of Greenland Introduction to Greenland and Its Human History Cultural Preconditions to Live in the Arctic and Arctic Hunter-Gatherer Societies The Palaeo-Eskimo People The Thule Culture The Thule Region—A Magnet for Prehistoric Migrations Northeast Greenland—A Vulnerable Place to Live West, South and East Greenland—The Land of Plenty and of Cultural Encounters References Antarctic Climates Abstract Physical Geography Large-Scale Circulation Climatic Regions in Antarctica Overview of the Climate of Antarctica Antarctic Peninsula Continental Coast and Ice Shelves Antarctic Plateau Climate Change, Ozone Depletion, and Modes of Variability in the Southern Hemisphere Antarctic Future Appendix: Supplementary material Appendix: Supplementary material References Further Readings Relevant Websites Antarctic Terrestrial Biome—Most Poor, Extreme and Sensitive on the Planet Introduction Origin Habitat and Biogeographic Zonation Main Components Communities The Ecological Role Modern Impacts Conservation Measures References Marine Plankton of Open Antarctic Seas Introduction Plankton of the Southern Ocean Phytoplankton General features and composition General distribution Controls on growth and accumulation Zooplankton General features and composition General distribution Controls on zooplankton growth and accumulation Future Plankton Phytoplankton Zooplankton Summary Acknowledgments References Antarctic Marine Mammals Introduction Cetacea Antarctic Minke Whale Threats and Conservation Status Arnoux’s Beaked Whale Threats and Conservation Status Blue Whale Threats and Conservation Status Fin Whale Threats and Conservation Status Hourglass Dolphin Threats and Conservation Status Humpback Whale Threats and Conservation Status Killer Whale Threats and Conservation Status Southern Bottlenose Whale Threats and Conservation Status Southern Right Whale Threats and Conservation Status Sperm Whale Threats and Conservation Status Pinnipedia Antarctic Fur Seal Threats and Conservation Status Crabeater Seal Threats and Conservation Status Leopard Seal Threats and Conservation Status Ross Seal Threats and Conservation Status Southern Elephant Seal Threats and Conservation Status Weddell Seal Threats and Conservation Status Conclusion Acknowledgments References Development of Antarctic Science Introduction History of Antarctic Exploration First Landing on the Continent Post-War Research IGY and the Antarctic Treaty Studies of Antarctic Ice Properties Ice Core Research Subglacial Lakes Life Beneath the Ice Sheet Current Changes in the Antarctic Ice Sheets Life in Ice-Free Regions Looking Toward the Future References Current Changes in Antarctic Ecosystems Introduction to Antarctic Biogeography and Biota Antarctic Terrestrial Biogeography Sub-Antarctic Maritime Antarctic Continental Antarctic Habitats Terrestrial Biota Sub-Antarctic Maritime Antarctic Continental Antarctic Microbial Systems Antiquity of the Antarctic Terrestrial Biota Antarctic Environmental Change Biological Responses to Change in Antarctica Natural Ecosystems Environmental Manipulation as a Proxy for Climate Change Other Direct Human Impacts Non-native Species Concluding Thoughts Acknowledgment References Volume 3 Section 5: Forests - Trees of Life Forest Biome: Trees of Life What is a Forest (Definitions and Perspectives Matter)? Where Do Forests Occur? What Do We Get From Forests (Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services)? Ecosystem Services Wood Fiber and Fuel If a Tree Falls Does Anybody Care (Status of the World’s Forests)? Total Forest Area Natural Forest Area What are the Drivers of Forest Loss? Can We Save the Forest in Time? References How Carbon Cycles Through a Forest Abstract How Carbon Gets Into and Moves Around in a Forest The Only True Investment in a Forest The Fungal Connection The Truffle Connection The Squirrel Connection The Pellet Connection The Rotting Wood Connection How Carbon Stored in Trees Shapes a Forest Placement of FallenTrees How Fallen Trees Are Reinvested in the ForestSoil Pit-and-Mound Topography How Carbon Leaves a Forest and Feeds theOcean Driftwood in the OpenOcean Driftwood as Habitat and Food on the OceanFloor How and Why People Overexploit the Carbon in a Forest How Caretaking Allows Carbon to Maintain a Sustainable Forest References Large Scale Forest Conservation With an Indigenous People in the Highly Threatened Southeastern Amazon of Brazil: TheKayapo Abstract Introduction and Background Conservation Significance of Kayapo Territories Warrior Tradition and Land Gain: TheKayapo Alliance with ConservationNGOs Hotspot Analysis Demonstrates Success of Kayapo NGO Alliance Deforestation Hot Spots Analysis Hot Spot Analysis Results Discussion Conclusion References The Ecology of Forest Disturbances Abstract Introduction-What are Disturbances? Why, When, and Where Do Disturbances Happen? What is the LimitingFactor? Frequency of disturbances Interacting Disturbances The Disturbance Regime Historical range of variability Deviations fromHRV Disturbances as Integral Components of an Ecosystem Nutrient Cycling Absence of Disturbance What Happens After Disturbance? Managing Forest Disturbances Conclusions Acknowledgment References ``Real´´ vs. ``Fake´´ Forests: Why Tree Plantations Are Not Forests Abstract What Exactly is a Forest? How Are Forests and Plantations Defined and Counted? Early Forest Definitions Common Forest Definitions Ecological Forest Definitions Common Plantation Definitions FSC Explicitly States That Plantations Include Site Preparation Planted Forest How Do Real vs. Fake Forests Differ Ecologically? Can Plantations Be Managed (Restored/Enhanced) for Ecological Integrity? Conclusions Appendix 1FSC Principle 10for Plantation Management (Note: more specific regional guidance, intent, and application is prov ... References The Neotropical Rainforests Abstract Introduction Biogeographical Distribution Historical Biogeography: Creation and Isolation of the Neotropics Biodiversity Important Species and Biological Groups Major Threats and Losses Climate Change ConservationNeeds Examples of Positive Outcomes Conclusion References Why Should We Care So Much About Old World Tropical Rainforests? Abstract Scientific Significance of Old World Tropics Tropical Forest Types and Locations Tropical Rainforest Tropical Savanna Tropical Dry Forest Unique Ecological Characteristics = Endemism What is Happening to Old World Tropical Forests? When is Old World Forest Loss happening? Where is Old World Forest Loss Happening: Regional Considerations? Why is Old World Forest Loss happening? What Do We Do About Forest Loss: Conservation Considerations? Forest Protection/Preservation Replacement (Natural Recovery, Restoration) Conclusions References From the Sea to the Mountains Abstract Introduction VegetationTypes Distributional Patterns of Vascular Plant Richness Along the Elevational Gradient Anthropogenic Impact on Species Richness General Conclusions References The Inland Temperate Rainforest and Interior Wetbelt Biomes of Western North America What is the Inland Temperate Rainforest? The Kispiox Inland Temperate Rainforest The Caribou Inland Temperate Rainforests The Interior Wetbelt Related Ecosystems Biota of the Inland Rainforest Inland Rainforests and Carbon Sequestration History and Use of the Inland Rainforest and Interior Wetbelt Conclusions Acknowledgments References Boreal and TaigaBiome Abstract Introduction Physiognomy, Climate and Relationship With Adjacent Biomes Soils and Ecosystem Development Aquatic and Wetland Features Flora andFauna Fire and Adaptation toFire Successional Dynamics in the Boreal Forest Threats Conservation Initiatives Conclusions References Further Reading Relevant Websites Coniferous Forests of the Klamath-Siskiyou Region, Northwest California and Southwest Oregon Introduction Geography Geology Buoyant Rocks Coastward Continuance Climates Biology Overview Biodiversity Behemoth Relicts Centers of Diversity Refugia Endemism Serpentine Calcite Soils Fire Influences on Plant Diversity Conservation References Evergreen Oak Woodlands—Southern Europe and Northern Africa Mediterranean Forest Types Sclerophyllous Forest Distributions and Patterns Climatic Effects on Evergreen Forests Habitat Directives for Sclerophyllous Forests Conservation Challenges and Threats Conclusions and Conservation Recommendations References Montane Cloud Forests Abstract Introduction Biogeography Vegetative Community Fauna Soils Biomass and CStock Distribution MCF Under Anthropogenic Pressure MCF Under Climatic Change References Further Reading Forest Protected Areas Introduction What is a Forest Protected Area? Definitions and Varieties How Much Forest Protected Area Exists? What Do Forest Protected Areas Provide? Social Dimensions of Forest Protected Areas Management Effectiveness—Do Forest Protected Areas Work? The Future of Forest Protected Areas References Further Reading An Introduction and Perspectives on Forest Certification Basic Concept, Goals, and Approaches Evaluating and Comparing Forest Certification Systems Other Current and Emerging Points of Interest Looking Down the Forest Road Appendix I: Additional Considerations for Comparing and Evaluating Forest Certification Systems Factors and Questions Regarding the Systems’ Institutions and Governance Questions and Approaches Regarding Certification Systems’ Forest Management Standards Questions and Considerations Regarding the Systems’ Certification Audits and Label Claims Acknowledgments References Forests and Ecosystem Services Ecosystem Services From Forest Biomes Economic Values Willingness to Pay and Willingness to Accept Estimates of Value Tradeoffs Social Cost of Carbon Other Ecosystem Benefits Payments for Ecosystem Services Emphasis on Extractive Products Payments for Nonmarket ESs Conclusion References Threats to Mekong Forest Ecosystems: Last Chance for the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot Introduction—Historical and Cultural Context The Mekong Region Mekong Forest History Assessing Forest Destruction in the Mekong Region Regional Forest Destruction Country-Level Forest Destruction Primary Tropical Forest Ecosystems Destroyed Mangrove Ecosystem Destruction Loss of Flooded Forests—Tonle Sap, Siphandon and Mekong River Dominant Causes of Forest Destruction Infrastructure Development as an Ecosystem Destroyer Rapid Rise of a New Threat The China Factor Step-Change in Forest Destruction Wood Exports and Destruction of Primary Forests Financial Snapshot of Forest Destruction Summary of Findings Concluding Remarks—Politics of Conservation Acknowledgments References Websites Cited Migrating Most US Fiber Production From Forests to Farms Introduction Irreconcilable Conflict in Forest Management: Fiber or Nonraw Material Ecosystem Services Private Value Versus Societal Value of US Forestlands Fair Market Value to Private Landowners of Private Forestlands Net Present Value to Society of Private Forestlands Contrasting Private Fair Market Value and Societal Net Present Value of Private Forestlands The Most Common Use of US Forestland Is Fiber Production Current US Forest Fiber Use Highest and Best Use of US Forests Is Nonraw Material Ecosystem Services Securing the Value of Ecosystem Services on US Forestlands for This and Future Generations Alternative Agricultural Fibers Technically Feasible Availability Substitution Potential Engineering and Innovation Irreplaceable Wood Products Economics of Nonwood Plant Fiber and Changing Consumer Demand Intentional Fiber Hemp The Fiber Migration Model 1: Substituting Forest Fiber With Farm Fiber Major modeling steps Key findings 2: Converting Private Timberland to Public Forestland Major migration steps Key findings Who Would Manage the Forests? Surface Water Protection Deed Stipulations Policy Changes Necessary to Migrate US Fiber Production to Farm From Forest Aspects and Impacts of a US Fiber Transition From Forests to Farms Climate Forests Private Forestland Owners Forest Workers Forest Fiber Processing Facilities Food Farms Farmers State and Local Governments Bioenergy Versus Fiber Production Food Versus Fuel Versus Fiber Fight? Conclusion References Relevant Websites Forests Are Not Fuel Introduction Current Trends in Bioenergy Production and Demand: US and Globally Policy Drivers of Bioenergy Demand National and International Climate and Energy Drivers Fuel Switching and Existing Infrastructure National Subsidies and Support for Bioenergy Climate Impacts of Forests as Fuel Comparing GWP From Bioenergy to Other Renewable Energies The Inaccuracies and Assumptions of Carbon Neutrality The Reality of Bioenergy Production in the US Ecological Impacts of Forests as Fuel Impacts of Harvest on Forest Ecosystems The United States leads in forest harvest rates Impacts on carbon balance of US forests Impacts on rare species Impacts on water quality in riparian forest systems Logging and salvage activities reduce resilience to extreme events Intensive harvest practices harm soil structure and carbon Additional Impacts of Bioenergy Demand on Forest Ecosystems Bioenergy impacts more acres than solar photovoltaic fields Demand for unmerchantable wood Large increases in bioenergy production could impact food security Community Impacts of Forests as Fuel Conclusions References Going beyond Forestry: FAO’s State of the World’s Forests Report 2018 State of the World’s Forests Pathways to Sustainable Development Assumptions and Trade Offs Agents of Change: Rights of Local Communities and Smallholders Conclusions References Can Young-Growth Forests Save the Tongass Rainforest in Southeast Alaska? Tongass as a World Class Temperate Rainforest Setting a Transition Timeline: Young Growth Volume Young Growth Economics: The Bottom Line Climate Benefits of a Rapid Transition Tongass Climate Change Refuge: Uncertainties and Risks Conclusions References Negative Emissions From Stopping Deforestation and Forest Degradation Abstract Introduction The Global Carbon Budget Emissions of Carbon From Land Management: ThePast Potential Negative Emissions Forest Biomes in Temperate and BorealZones Tropical Forest Biomes A Conservative Estimate An Excess Loss of ForestArea Area of Primary Forest A Simulation With Shifting Cultivation Global Synthesis Three Broad Categories of Forest Management for Reducing Emissions or IncreasingSinks Net Versus Gross Fluxes Conclusions References Roadless Areas as Key Approach to Conservation of Functional Forest Ecosystems Abstract How Do Roads Impact Ecosystems? Roads and Roadless Areas in Forests What Are Roadless Areas and Where AreThey? What Are the Data Needs and Prospects Regarding Roadless Big Data Management and Research? Roadless Areas and Society Roadless Areas Policy: What Are the Messages for Policy Makers? Conclusions and Outlook Acknowledgment References The Importance of Forests for Monarch Butterflies Biodiversity Importance Social and Cultural Importance of Monarchs Ecological Importance of Monarchs Natural History of Monarchs Description and life cycle Migration Ecology of Forests Used for Overwintering Eastern migratory population overwintering forests Western Migratory Population Overwintering Forests Principal Anthropogenic Stressors and Trends Population Status and Trends Loss of Breeding and Migratory Habitats Loss of Winter Habitat Eastern migratory population forest loss Western migratory population forest loss Changing Climatic Conditions Conservation Strategies and Challenges Safeguarding the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve Supporting local communities Tourism Restoration Safeguarding the Monarch’s Future References Further Reading Reducing Emissions From Tropical Deforestation and Forest Degradation Abstract Introduction Strategies for Reducing Forest Carbon Emissions in the Tropics Reducing Deforestation of Natural Forests Forest moratorium Sustainably Managing Oil Palm and Timber Concessions Reduced-Impact Logging Restoration Peat restoration Landswaps Improving the Management Effectiveness of ProtectedAreas History of Development: From RED to REDD to REDD+ Results-Based Finance via REDD+ Challenges of Measuring Emissions Reductions Where Are WeNow? Concluding Remarks Acknowledgment References Relevant Websites Solving the Spotted Owl Crisis: Including People in the Solution Which Comes First—Chicken or Egg? Context The Journey Begins: Implementation Building a New Boat Good Intentions and Good Fortune Meet Pressing the Priority of Fish Levering Salmon, Our Beloved Icon A Last Word Further Reading Overlap Between Carbon Stores and Intact Boreal Woodland Caribou Ranges in Canada’s Boreal Forest Introduction to Boreal Forest and Its Carbon Stocks Potential Impacts to Stored Boreal Carbon Stocks Boreal Biome Landscapes Are also Biodiversity Rich History of Boreal Woodland Caribou in Canada Protecting the Boreal Landscape to Mitigate the Effects of Climate Change on Boreal Biodiversity Boreal Woodland Caribou Ranges and Carbon Stores Show Wide Overlap References Roadless in the Pacific Northwest: Ecology and History The Untold Story of Roadless Area Protection The Context Agency Dinosaurs? Ticking Clock Making Hay Upon Reflection Further Reading Hawaiian Islands Dry Forest Introduction Description Defining Dry Forest Characteristics Geology Physical/life history components Vegetation composition and vegetation structure Biodiversity Pre-Human Condition Dry Forest Subtypes Vegetation composition and vegetation structure of dry forest Physical/life history components of dry forest Dry Forests Viability of Prehuman Conditions Current Condition Dry Forest Subtypes Current Dry Forest Extent/Range Stressors Invasive ungulates Invasive plants Plant disease Invasive herbivores Fire and drought Natural disasters Climate change Agriculture and urban development Conservation Efforts Federal Endangered Species Act National parks National wildlife refuges State Natural area reserves system Forest reserve system Landowner assistance programs Department of Hawaiian Home Lands Office of Hawaiian Affairs Private The Nature Conservancy Kamehameha Schools Auwahi Forest Restoration Project Hawaiian Islands Land Trust Lānatnqh_699i Multiple agency partnerships Association of watershed partnerships Invasive species committees Laws and regulations Inadequate protection from introduction of nonnative species General invasive species control actions Future Scenarios Conclusion References In Litt Hawaiian Islands Wet Forest Hawaiian Islands Wet Forest Description Defining Hawaiian Wet Forest Geology Vegetation structure, composition, and subunits Lowland rainforest Montane rainforest Montane cloud forest Sustainability Biodiversity Cultural Significance Pre-Human Condition Pre-human wet forest resilience Current Condition Current extent/range Lowland rainforest Montane rainforest and montane cloud forest Hawaitnqh_699i managed tree plantation Wet forest land ownership Stressors Invasive ungulates Invasive plants Plant disease Natural disasters Climate change Conservation Efforts Reserves Watershed partnerships Rain Follows the Forest Initiative Laws and Biosecurity Biosecurity Endangered Species Act Summary of Interactions of Stressors and Conservation Efforts Future Scenarios Conservation Implications References Hawaitnqh_699i: Mesic Forests Introduction Description Geology Vegetation Structure and Composition Other Biotic Components Biodiversity Physical/Life History Components Water availability Viability of mesic forests Prehuman Condition Prehuman Mesic Forest Subtypes Redundancy, Representation, and Resilency Redundancy Representation Resiliency Current Condition Current Mesic Forest Subtypes Extent/Quantity of Mesic Forests Land Ownership Stressors Climate Stressors Precipitation, wind, drought, soil moisture, air temperature, and storms Nonclimate Stressors Invasive species Agriculture, grazing, and urban development Insects and disease Wildfire Natural disasters Biological Conservation Efforts Reserves Laws and Biosecurity Biosecurity Endangered species act (ESA) Stakeholder Engagement National parks and national wildlife refuges State of Hawaitnqh_699i Department of Hawaiian Home Lands Watershed partnerships Safe harbor agreements Pulama Lānatnqh_699i Invasive species committees Ranching and farming easements Military Hawaitnqh_699i Wildfire Management Organization Others Future Scenarios Future Scenario One—Status Quo Future Scenario Two Future Scenario Three Future Scenario Four Conservation Implications Mesic Forests Conclusion References Mariana Islands Forest Mariana Islands Forest Introduction Description Geology Physical/life history components Water availability and climate Vegetation structure and composition Biodiversity/biotic components Pre-Human Condition Forest Sub-types Forest Viability of Pre-Human Conditions Current Condition Forest Sub-types Current Forest Extent/Range Native forest Southern Islands Northern Islands Secondary forest Monoculture forest Leucaena forest Stressors Historic Habitat Loss and Destruction Invasive Species Forest degradation by invasive animals Forest degradation by invasive insects Forest alteration by invasive plants Forest Loss From Volcanic Activity Development Typhoons Fire Climate Change Conservation Efforts Federal Endangered species act Sikes act and the integrated natural resources management plan Guam Micronesian kingfisher memorandum of agreement (MOA) Local Permitting Protected Lands Invasive Species Management and Control Biosecurity Partnerships Micronesian Challenge Interactions of All the Above Future Scenarios Future Scenario One: Status Quo Future Scenario Two: There Is a Slight Increase in the CMPs That Marginally Improves Conservation Management Future Scenario Three: There Is a Small to Moderate Decrease in Conservation Actions in the CMPs That Substantially Decreas ... Future Scenario Four: There Is a Moderate to Large Increase in Conservation Actions in the CMPs That Substantially Improves ... Conclusion References Seeing the Freshwater Among the Trees: The Little-Recognized Aquatic Resources of Canada’s Boreal Forest Region Introduction to the Globally Significant Aquatic Features of the Boreal Globally Significant Biodiversity in Canada’s Boreal Forest Large-Scale Industrial Activity Is Increasing A Bold Conservation Vision World-Leading Stewardship of Aquatic Resources More to be Done A Last Great Conservation Opportunity References Section 6: Grasslands and Shrublands - Sea of Plants Grassland and Shrublands—An Overview Introduction Scope of the Grasslands and Shrublands Section Biogeography and Ecology Climate Disturbance Soils Origins of Grasslands and Shrublands Important Grasslands, Shrublands and Savannas Not Covered in This Section Introduction to the Grasslands and Shrublands Chapters References Tropical, Temperate, and Mediterranean Grasslands of the World Introduction Defining Grasslands—An Ecological Vegetation Perspective Types of Grasslands Tropical Lowland Grassland, Savanna, and Shrubland Tropical Montane Grassland and Shrubland Mediterranean Scrub and Grassland Temperate Grassland and Shrubland Biogeographic Distribution of Tropical, Temperate, and Mediterranean Grasslands Biodiversity of Grasslands Grassland Productivity, Ecosystem Services and Climate Change Carbon Storage and Agriculture Agricultural Grazing Biofuels Grasslands in Crisis—Conservation Strategies Acknowledgments References Further Reading Relevant Websites North American Temperate Grasslands: Conservation at the Center of the Continent Introduction Classifying the Grassland Biome Conservation Status and Trends Grassland Landscape Condition Landscape Conservation Design Conclusions References Further Reading Relevant Websites Grasslands and Savannas of the Southeastern USA Introduction Types of Grasslands in the Southeastern United States Prairies Grassy Balds Savannas and Woodlands Barrens, Glades, and Outcrops Herbaceous Wetlands Canebrakes Factors that Create and Maintain Southeastern Grasslands Climate Fire Substrate and Landform Hydrology Herbivores Other Disturbances and Combinations Why Are Southeastern Grasslands So Biologically Diverse? Southeastern Grasslands and Carbon Storage What Is the Future for Southeastern Grasslands? References Further Reading Relevant Websites Chaparral of California What Is Chaparral? Origins of Chaparral Drought and Wildfire: Key Processes of Ecology and Evolution Physiology and Drought Stress Fire and Adaptive Responses Biological Diversity of Chaparral Ecosystem Services Threats to Chaparral Conservation Future of Chaparral References California Oak Savannas and Grasslands Introduction Distribution Climate and Soils Biodiversity: Key Species Trees Herbaceous Plants Animals: Invertebrates Animals: Vertebrates Factors Affecting Species Distributions and Community Composition Climate Soil Type Tree-Grass Interactions Plant-Animal Interactions Oaks Providing Food and Habitat for Animals Mutualist Seed-Dispersers Ecosystem Engineers Animals Contributing to the Oak Regeneration Problem Human Impacts Early Uses, Tree-Cutting, and Firewood Harvesting Fire Livestock Grazing Current Threats Regeneration Problem Habitat Loss and Degradation Due to Land-Use Conversion References Further Reading Relevant Website Prairies, Savannas, and Oak Woodlands of the Pacific Northwest Introduction History and Physical Setting Historical Extent and Distribution Paleoecology Climate Soils Hydrology Biota Community Types Grasslands Savannas and Woodlands Biogeography and Floristics Fauna Ecological Processes Threats Conservation and Research Future Appendix A Appendix B Acknowledgments References Relevant Websites Multi-Media Annexes North American Sagebrush Steppe and Shrubland What Are Sagebrush Steppe and Sagebrush Shrublands? Where Are Sagebrush Ecosystems Found? Ecological Attributes Structure and Composition Biological Diversity Supported by Sagebrush Ecosystems The greater sage-grouse—a charismatic species of the sagebrush biome Ecological Processes Threats and Anthropogenic Stressors of Sagebrush Ecosystems Effects of Climate Change Conservation Strategies Acknowledgments References North American Pinyon–Juniper Woodlands: Ecological Composition, Dynamics, and Future Trends Introduction Types of Pinyon–Juniper Woodlands Detailed Pinyon–Juniper Woodland Descriptions G198 Californian Conifer Forest & Woodland Group G487 Madrean Juniper Open Woodland Group G200 Madrean Pinyon–Juniper Woodland Group G900 Colorado Plateau Pinyon–Juniper Woodland Group G248 Columbia Plateau Western Juniper Open Woodland Group G899 Great Basin Pinyon–Juniper Woodland Group G249 Intermountain Basins Curl-leaf Mountain-mahogany Woodland & Scrub G252 Southern Rocky Mountain Juniper Open Woodland Group G253 Southern Rocky Mountain Pinyon–Juniper Woodland Group Ecological Dynamics in Pinyon–Juniper Woodlands Fire Regimes Insect Pathogens Ecosystem Services and the Changing Land Use of Pinyon–Juniper Woodlands History and Land Use Impacts (e.g., Involving Herbivory, Changes in Fire Regime) Pinyon nuts Livestock use Fuelwood Pinyon–Juniper Woodlands and Climate Tree Mortality and Plant Composition Changes Carbon Storage as an Ecosystem Service Conclusion—Climate and Carbon Future Trends and Conservation References Relevant Website Mexical Shrubland Introduction The Mexical Shrubland and its Similitude with the Mediterranean Shrublands Palaeobotanical and Palaeoecological Evidence and the Origin of the Mexical Shrubland Geographical Patterns of the Mexical Floristic Composition, Vegetation, and Plant Traits of Mexical Plant Physiological Studies Plant Phenology Regeneration Niche Conservatism and Community Organization Fire Responses of Mexical Species Areas for Future Research Acknowledgments References Cerrado-South America Abstract What IsCerrado? The Landscapes ofCerrado The Biodiversity ofCerrado Threats and Conservation Changing Climatic Conditions The Future ofCerrado References Caatinga-South America Abstract What is Caatinga? The Landscapes of Caatinga The Biodiversity of Caatinga Threats and Conservation Changing Climatic Conditions The Future of Caatinga References Grasslands and Open Savannas of the DryChaco Abstract Introduction Natural Grassland and Savannas Typologies and Distribution Historic Land-Use Changes Affected Dry Chaco Grassland Present Day Distribution Environmental Characteristics Climate andSoils Floristic Composition and Diversity Ecosystem Management and Properties Fire Regime Assessing the Role of Natural Grasslands in Cattle Grazing, and Exploring Sustainable Intensification Opportunities Cattle Grazing in Natural Grasslands and Savannas Assessing Potential for Cattle Intensification Livestock-Wildlife Interactions Conservation and Representation in ProtectedAreas Future Research and Conclusions References Temperate Subhumid Grasslands of Southern South America Abstract Introduction Biogeography Ecosystem Functioning Ecosystems Services Human Appropriation of Primary Production Disturbances Land Use Change Biological Invasions Conservation Status Appendix: Supplementary Material Appendix: Supplementary material References The Chilean Matorral: Characteristics, Biogeography, and Disturbance Introduction History and Geography Flora Fauna Disturbance Conservation Fray Jorge, a Sentinel Site References The Mediterranean Floristic Region: High Diversity of Plants and Vegetation Types Predictable Climate Biodiversity Primarily Shaped by Geography and Soils Mediterranean Floristic Richness Biogeography at the Cross-roads of Three Continents Vegetation Dynamics Conservation References Grasslands of the Palaearctic Biogeographic Realm: Introduction and Synthesis Introduction Delimitation and Physical Geography of the Region Origin and Extent of the Grasslands Definition and Types of Grasslands Spatial Extent of Grasslands in the Palaearctic Biodiversity of Palaearctic Grasslands Biodiversity Hotspots and Diversity of Taxa in General Exceptional Biodiversity at Small Spatial Scales Factors Influencing Alpha Diversity of Grasslands Species-Area Relationships and Beta Diversity Threats and Conservation Overall Threat Assessment Individual Threat Factors Conservation and Restoration of Grasslands References Grasslands and Shrublands of the Mediterranean Region Delimitation and Physiogeography Typology of Mediterranean Dry Grasslands Wintergreen Perennial Dry Grasslands Wintergreen Ephemeral Dry Grasslands Summergreen Perennial Dry Grasslands Typology of Mediterranean Shrublands Halo-Nitrophilous Shrublands Thermo-Xerophilous Dwarf Shrublands Thermo-Xerophilous Tall Shrublands Origin of Mediterranean Grasslands and Shrublands Ecology and Biodiversity Patterns Ecosystem services Threats Conservation, Sustainable Management and Restoration References Heathlands of Temperate and Boreal Europe Delimitation and Physiogeography [Topography, Climate, Soils] of the Region Soils Climate Ecology, Typology of the Communities Flora and Fauna Fauna Biogeography and Biodiversity Patterns Natural vs. Anthropogenic Communities Threats Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Management References Shrublands of Temperate Europe Delimitation and Physiogeography of the Region Ecology and Biodiversity Patterns; Typology of the Communities, Flora AndFauna Fauna Natural vs. Anthropogenic Communities. Threats Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Management References Grasslands of Western Europe Delimitation and Physiogeography of the Region Biogeography, Flora and Fauna Origin of the Grasslands Typology of the Communities Primary or Natural Grasslands Alpine grasslands Azonal and extrazonal grasslands Secondary Grasslands Xeric grasslands Meso-xeric grasslands Mesic grasslands Wet grasslands Ecology and Biodiversity Patterns Threats Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Management References Grasslands of Northern Europe and the Baltic States Delimitation and Environmental Conditions of the Region Biogeography, Flora and Fauna Origin of the Grasslands Types of Grasslands Management and Agricultural Policy Ecology of the Semi-Natural Grasslands of the Region Biodiversity: Patterns and Drivers Threats Conservation and Restoration Acknowledgments References Grasslands of Eastern Europe Abstract Delimitation and Physiogeography Origin and Biodiversity of Grasslands Typology of Grasslands Steppes and Steppe Grasslands in Forest Steppe Mosaics Alpine Grasslands Azonal and Extrazonal Grasslands Coastal and inland saline grasslands Sand steppes and coastal sand grasslands Grasslands on shallow rocky substrates Secondary grasslands Dry and Semi-Dry Grasslands Mesic to Wet Grasslands Ecology and Biodiversity Patterns Ecosystem Services and Threats AreaLoss Changes in Management: Intensification and Abandonment Invasive Species Encroachment Climate Change Some Further Drivers of Grassland Biodiversity Conservation, Sustainable Management and Restoration Conservation Sustainable Grassland Management and Restoration Acknowledgment References Grasslands and Shrublands of the Middle East and the Caucasus Delimitation and Physiogeography Origin of Grassland and Shrubland Communities Typology of Communities Saline Vegetation Plain Steppes Montane Steppes Forest-Steppes and Related Shrublands Mesophilic Semi-Natural Grasslands Biogeography and Biodiversity Land Use Threats and Conservation References Temperate Grasslands and Shrublands of Russia Boundary Delimitation and Area Physiography Biogeography, Flora, and Fauna Natural and Anthropogenic Communities (Including the Origin of Meadows) The Classification of Grasslands and Shrublands of Russia Ecology and Biodiversity Threats Conservation, Restoration, and Sustainable Management Appendix 1: Syntaxonomic Prodromus of the Meadows, Steppes and Shrublands of Russia (Largely Following Ermakov (2012)) (Pre ... References Grasslands and Shrublands of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia Delimitation and Physiogeography of the Region Biogeography, Flora and Fauna Forest-Steppe and Steppe Zones Middle Asia Grassland Origin Typology of Communities Forest-Steppe and Steppe Zones Middle Asia Threats Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Management References Grasslands and Shrublands of Mongolia Abstract Topography, Climate andSoils Biogeography and Ecology Flora and Typology of Communities Fauna Bacteria Threats of Changing Land Use and Climate Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Management Acknowledgment References Grasslands of China Delimitation and Physiogeography Biogeography and Ecology Flora Fauna Origin of the Grasslands Typology of Plant Communities Biodiversity Patterns Ecosystem Services and Threats Overgrazing Land conversion Plant Collecting and Animal Hunting Mining, Urbanization and Development of Infrastructure Climate Change Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Management Acknowledgment References Grasslands and Shrublands of Japan Delimitation and Physiogeography of the Region Biogeography, Flora and Fauna Origin of the Grasslands and Shrublands Typology of the Communities Natural Grasslands and Shrublands Windswept grasslands and shrublands Riparian grasslands and shrublands Coastal grasslands and shrublands Grasslands and shrublands on specific soil conditions Semi-Natural Grasslands Pastures Meadows Secondary Grasslands and Shrublands Ecology and Biodiversity Patterns Threats Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Management Legal Conservation and Restoration Status Semi-natural Grassland Conservation Acknowledgments References Grasslands and Savannas of South Asia What Are Grasslands? Back to Basics Biogeographic Origins of South Asia and South Asian Grasslands Grasslands of South Asia. Where They Are Ecological Dynamics of South Asian Grasslands. How Are They Maintained? Biodiversity of South Asian Grasslands Terai Duar Grasslands and Savanna of India, Nepal and Bhutan The Banni and Vidis Grasslands of Gujarat, India Shola Grasslands of the Western Ghats, India Grasslands and Savannas of Sri Lanka Other Grasslands of South Asia Concluding Remarks References Grassland Vegetation of Southern Africa History of Southern African Grasslands What Is the Scope of Southern African Grasslands? Ecosystem Modifiers Geology, Soil, and Terrain Fire Climate Grazing Biodiversity Ecosystem Services Threats to the Grasslands of Southern Africa Conservation References The Tropical Savannas of Northern Australia Introduction Biogeography Vegetation and Environmental Setting Fauna Land Use and Human Population Incidence and Impacts of Fire Threats, Conservation Challenges and Management References South-Eastern Australian Temperate Grasslands and Grassy Woodlands Description of the Ecosystems Distribution Definitions Major Systems Temperate grasslands Temperate grassy woodlands Minor Systems Ephemeral wetlands, bogs, and fens Adjoining Grassy Ecosystems Semi-arid grasslands and woodlands Montane and alpine grasslands, shrublands and woodlands Tableland dry forest communities Adjoining Non-Grassy Ecosystems Secondary Grasslands Ecological Conditions Determining Grassy Ecosystems Fauna of Grassy Ecosystems Human Interactions: Indigenous Connections and European Exploitation Indigenous Land-Uses: Pre1788 Early European Land-Uses: 1788 to 1950s Agricultural and Infrastructure Development Post-World War II Human Interactions: Greater Understanding, Targeted Conservation, Research, Community Engagement, and Sustainable Land-Use Research Classification and mapping Research on ecology, genetics, management and restoration Formal Conservation Early efforts: National parks pre-1990 Recent efforts: National parks and nature reserves post-1990 Conservation Planning Off-Reserve Conservation Covenants and stewardships Informal reserves on state-owned and private lands Conservation on traveling stock reserves and country cemeteries Education and Community Engagement Recovery planning and other formal programs Flora and management guides Conservation management networks Connectivity partnerships Community groups Indigenous engagement Grassy ecosystems in art and horticulture Towards More Sustainable Land-Use in the Agricultural Landscape Sustainable land-use Conflicts between legislation and the agriculture sector Conclusion References Relevant Websites Sclerophyll Shrublands of Southwestern Australia Introduction Climate and Soils Vegetation and Flora Fire Phenology Flowering Leaves Conservation and Management References Further Reading Mallee and Maalok Ecosystems of Southern Australia Introduction Distribution and Types of Mallee Ecosystems Heathy Mallee Shrubby Mallee Chenopod Mallee Triodia Mallee Maalok Key Drivers of Mallee Distribution and Ecology Summer Water Deficit Nutrient Poverty Fire Regimes Patterns in fire occurrence Plant traits and fire responses Conservation References Hawaitnqh_699i’s Dry Grasslands and Shrublands Introduction Description Defining Dry Grassland and Shrubland Characteristics Geology Vegetation structure and composition Other biotic components Physical/life history components System Viability Pre-Human Condition Dry Grassland and Shrubland Sub-Types Physical/life history components Pre-Human Extent/Range Viability of Pre-Human Dry Grasslands and Shrublands Current Condition Dry Grassland and Shrubland Sub-Types Current Extent/Range Distribution by sub-type Dry cliff Native dry grasslands and shrublands Introduced dry grasslands and shrublands Overall extent/range Stressors Invasive ungulates Invasive plants Invasive herbivores Fire and drought Other stressors Conservation Efforts Federal State Private Multiple agency partnerships Laws and regulations Endangered Species Act Biosecurity and invasive species control Protected areas Viability of Current Dry Grasslands and Shrublands Future Scenarios Future Scenario One—Status Quo Future Scenario Two—Slight Increase in CMPs Marginally Improves Conservation Management Future Scenario Three—Small to Moderate Decrease in CMPs Substantially Decreases Conservation Management Future Scenario Four—Moderate to High Increase in CMPs Substantially Improves Conservation Management Conclusion References Relevant Websites Hawaitnqh_699i Wet Grassland and Shrubland Introduction Climate, Hydrology, and Soils Physical Characteristics and Vegetation Composition Native Wet Sedge and Grassland Native Wet Cliff and Ridge Crest Shrubland Introduced Wet Grassland Introduced Evergreen Shrubland Biome Extent and Range Prior Human Contact Biome Extent and Range After Human Contact Native Wet Sedge and Grassland Native Wet Cliff and Ridge Crest Shrubland Introduced Wet Grassland Introduced Evergreen Shrubland Stressors Extreme Weather Events Climate Change and Drought Invasive Ungulates Loss of Pollinators Invasive Rodents Invasive Plants Development Conservation Efforts Laws and Biosecurity Stakeholder Engagement Conservation Areas Conservation Activities Prior Human Contact: Redundancy, Resiliency and Representation Current Condition: Redundancy, Resiliency, and Representation Native Wet Grassland and Shrubland Introduced Wet Grassland and Shrubland The Future of Hawaitnqh_699i Wet Grassland and Shrubland Foreseeable Future Conservation Management Parameters Future Scenarios Future Scenario One, Status Quo Future Condition Future Scenario Two Future Condition Future Scenario Three Future Condition Future Scenario Four Future Condition Conclusion References Hawaitnqh_699i: Mesic Grasslands and Shrublands Introduction Description Biodiversity Physical/Life History Components Vegetation Structure and Composition Water availability Viability of Mesic Grasslands and Shrublands (Redundancy, Resiliency, Representation) Redundancy Resiliency Representation Pre-Human Condition Current Condition Biome subtypes Hawaitnqh_699i lowland mesic shrubland Hawaitnqh_699i subalpine mesic shrubland Hawaitnqh_699i montane-subalpine mesic grassland Hawaitnqh_699i lowland mesic grassland Hawaitnqh_699i introduced perennial grassland Hawaitnqh_699i introduced deciduous shrubland Hawaitnqh_699i introduced evergreen shrubland Current distribution Native subtypes Introduced subtypes Stressors Climate stressors Precipitation, wind, drought, soil moisture, air temperature, and storms Non-Climate stressors Invasive species Agriculture, grazing, and urban development Wildfire Natural disasters Biological Conservation Efforts Reserves Laws and biosecurity Biosecurity Endangered species act Critical habitat: Stakeholder engagement National parks State of Hawaitnqh_699i Department of Hawaiian Home Lands Watershed partnerships Safe Harbor agreements Pūlama Lānatnqh_699i Ranching and farming easements Invasive species committees (ISC) Hawaitnqh_699i Wildfire Management Organization (HWMO) Future Scenarios Future scenario one—status quo Future scenario two Future scenario three Future scenario four Conservation Implications References Savannas of the Mariana Islands Archipelago Introduction Description Geology Vegetation Structure Water Availability Pre-Human Condition Current Condition Sustainability Stressors Climate Change Typhoons Fires Drought Off-Road Vehicle Use Invasive Species Development Conservation Efforts The Micronesia Challenge National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Protected Lands Protected Designations Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Protected Lands Government of Guam Protected Lands Stakeholder Engagement Interactions of All the Above Future Scenarios Future Scenario One, Status Quo Conclusion References Relevant Websites Volume 4 Section 7: Freshwater - Oasis of Life Freshwater: Oasis of Life—An Overview Introduction Why is Freshwater Important? The Importance of Freshwater for Domestic Use (Padowski, 2020) Importance of Freshwater for Irrigation (Edwards and Nehra, 2020) Importance of Freshwater for Livestock (El Mahdy, 2020) Importance of the Conservation and Management of Freshwater to Aquaculture (Goddard and Delghandi, 2020) Mining and Water Resources (Mudd, 2020) Freshwater and Industries (du Plessis, 2020) Importance of Freshwater for Electric Power Generation (Liao, 2020) The Importance of Freshwater for Providing Ecosystem Services (Apostolaki et al., 2020) Lentic Freshwater Ephemeral Wetlands (Deil, 2020) Wetlands (Campbell, 2020) Ponds (Lemmens and Pinceel, 2020) Lakes (Suring, 2020a) Lotic Freshwater Springs (Suring, 2020b) Stream Biomes of the World (McManamay and Jager, 2020) Rivers (Wohl et al., 2020) Riparian Riparian Ecosystems (Capon, 2020) Groundwater and Aquifers Groundwater and Aquifers (Suring, 2020c) Glaciers and Ice Sheets Glaciers and Ice Sheets (DeBeer et al., 2020) Biogeography The Subtropical Everglades, Florida, USA (Sklar et al., 2020) The Wetland System of Hawaitnqh_699i (Browning et al., 2020) The Laurentian Great Lakes of North America (Collingsworth and Malloy, 2020) African Great Lakes (Ogutu-Ohwayo et al., 2020) The Biogeography of the Glacier Biome (Dial and Ditto, 2020) Conservation and Management Conservation Challenges to Freshwater Ecosystems (Reid et al., 2020) Conservation of Temporary Wetlands (Boix et al., 2020) Wetlands of the Mariana Islands (Marshall et al., 2020) Aquaculture Ponds (Boyd and Davis, 2020) Microplastics in Freshwater Environments (Rios Mendoza and Balcer, 2020) The Springs Ecosystem Biome, with Emphasis on Arid Regions (Stevens, 2020) Headwater Streams (Richardson, 2020) Hawaiian Islands Streams (Valeros et al., 2020) Streams of the Mariana Islands (Polhemus and Richardson, 2020) Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: A Unique Biome with Important Contributions to Biodiversity and Ecosystem Servic ... Restoration of Riparian Habitats (Boisjolie et al., 2020) Implications of Climate Change to Groundwater (Langridge and Fencl, 2020) Glaciers and Ancient Carbon (Hågvar, 2020) References Freshwater: The Importance of Freshwater for DomesticUse Abstract Domestic Water Use Around theWorld Sources of Water for DomesticUse SurfaceWater Groundwater Other Sources Clean Water for DomesticUse Protection Treatment Delivery Challenges to Domestic Water Provision Environmental Impacts Health Impacts Increased Competition Climate Change Future Opportunities Improved Prediction Water Conservation Technological Advancements Conjunctive Water Management Green Infrastructure References Importance of Freshwater for Irrigation Abstract Introduction A Brief History of Irrigation Competing Demands Irrigation Institutions Water Conservation andReuse United States: The Value of Irrigation India: Groundwater and Subsidies China: The Impacts of MovingWater Chile: Extreme Water Scarcity Conclusion References Importance of Fresh Water for Livestock Abstract Water, ``the Sap of Life on Earth´´ and Its Distribution Fresh Water and Importance for Livestock Distribution of Livestock Dependent on the Rainfed Agriculture System Quality of Fresh Water Sources The Importance of Water for the AnimalBody Watering and Water Needs for Livestock in Different Regions Factors That Influence Drinking Water Consumption Fresh Water Requirements Depending on PhysiologicalStage Fresh Water Requirements for Livestock Production Water Consumption and Air Temperature Aspects Related With Water Quality Conclusion References Importance of the Conservation and Management of Freshwater to Aquaculture Abstract Challenges Freshwater Fish Farming Culture Methods Extensive culture Semi-intensive culture Intensive culture Freshwater Resources Fish Farm Effluent and Waste Products Recirculating Aquaculture Systems(RAS) RAS Applications RAS fish hatcheries RAS foodfish Water Treatment inRAS Removal of solids Biological filtration Gas control pH adjustment Pathogen control Waste water and sludge management Biofloc Technology Biofloc Farming Systems Aquaponics IntegratingCrops Media-filled systems Deep water culture systems Fish Production Planning Water Reuse and Treatment Food Safety Urban Aquaponics Prospects References Relevant Websites Mining and Water Resources Abstract Introduction The Brief Basics of Mining Water Use in Mining Water Resources Impacts From Mining Surface Water Resources Groundwater Resources Marine Water Resources Acid and Metalliferous Drainage (``AMD´´) Water Management and Reporting in Mining Case Studies Lady Annie Disaster, Australia Cadia Valley Operations, Australia Tailings Dams and Waste Rock Management Summary References Freshwater and Industries Industrial Water Use Current and Future Trends in Industrial Water Consumption and Withdrawal Industrial Water Pollution: Contributing Factors, Causes and Effects Contributing Factors Significant Pollutants, Causes and Effects Current Challenges and Possible Risks, Solutions or Strategies Current Challenges and Future Risks Possible Solutions and/or Strategies Conclusions References Importance of Freshwater for Electric Power Generation Introduction Life-Cycle Water Use for Electric Power Generation Operational Water Use for Electric Power Generation Hydro-Electricity Thermoelectricity Coal-fired power plant Natural gas electric power plants Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants Water-Related Risks for Electric Power Generation Reducing Electric Power Generation’s Reliance on Freshwater References Freshwater: The Importance of Freshwater for Providing Ecosystem Services Introduction Fresh Water Bodies: Rivers & Streams, Wetlands and Ponds, Groundwater, Ice-Caps Surface Water Bodies: Rivers and Streams, Lakes, Ponds and Wetlands Groundwater Ice Caps Connecting Nature and Society: Ecosystem Services Ecosystem Services Approach to Natural Resource Management and Development The Ecosystem Services of Freshwater Bodies Surface Water Bodies: Rivers & Streams, Lakes, Ponds and Wetlands Groundwater Ice-Caps Current Threats to Freshwater and Ecosystem Services Recommendations on Sustaining Ecosystem Services References Ephemeral Wetlands What Are Ephemeral Wetlands (=EW)? Basic Characteristics and Questions Habitat Types According to Abiotic Factors Biological Characters and Plant Strategies Fauna of EW and Strategy of Animals in SPH Biomass Production, Photosynthetic Pathways and Heterophylly Small Scale Zonation of Plant Communities Seasonal Dynamics, Year-to-Year Variability and the Role of Seed Bank Evolutionary Processes and Large Scale Biogeographic Patterns Convergence and Niche Equivalent Taxa Niche Constancy in EW Lineages and the Evolution of Geographical Vicarious Species Regional Endemism and Biodiversity of SPH Major Anthropogenic Threats Habitat Modification, Destruction, and Eutrophication Expansion of EW Species and Shift Into Human-Made Habitats Climate Change and the Role of Grazing Conservation and Restoration EW as Model Ecosystems for Ecological Research References Wetlands Abstract What are Wetlands? Wetlands and Flooding Flooding and Wetland Vegetation Other Controls on Wetland Vegetation WetlandFauna Where Are WetlandsFound? Wetland Ecosystem Goods and Services Threats to Wetlands Wetland Conservation and Restoration References Ponds Key Characteristics Biodiversity and Community Dynamics Threats Legislation and Conservation Management References Lentic Freshwater: Lakes Introduction Biogeography Lakes of Europe Lakes of Asia Lakes of Africa North Africa African Great Lakes Lakes of Australia and New Zealand Lakes of North America Lakes of South America Lakes of Antarctica Lakes of the Arctic Hydrologic and Geomorphologic Characteristics Biological Characteristics Plant Communities Animal Communities Benthic Invertebrates Mammals Birds Fish Commercial Uses Fisheries Shipping Habitat Change Eutrophication Acidification Shoreline Alteration Invasive Species Fish Invertebrates Plants Pollution Climate Change Conservation and Management Cultural Eutrophication Invasive Species Exotic plant species Invasive fish and invertebrates Acidification Contaminants Conclusions References Lotic Freshwater: Springs Introduction Hydrologic and Geomorphologic Characteristics Biological Characteristics Animal Communities Commercial Uses Habitat Change Pollution Climate Change Conservation and Management Conclusions References Stream Biomes of the World Introduction What Is a Stream? Physical Properties of Streams Stream Ecology Major Concepts Organisms Adapted to Living in Streams and Ecological Communities Commercial Importance and Ecosystem Services Anthropogenic Threats Conservation and Management References Further Reading Lotic Freshwater: Rivers Abstract Introduction Basic Characteristics Physical Biological A More Complete View of Rivers: Integrating Physical, Chemical and Biological Processes Ecological Relationships Disturbance, Resistance, and Resilience Conceptual Models CommercialUses Major Anthropogenic Threats Habitat Modification, Fragmentation, and Destruction Invasive Species Environmental Pollution Climate Change Conservation and Management ResearchNeeds Acknowledgment References Further Reading Relevant Websites Riparian Ecosystems Abstract What Are Riparian Ecosystems? Features of Riparian Ecosystems Functions and Benefits of Riparian Ecosystems Major Determinants of Riparian Ecosystem Structure and Function Threats and Pressures Conservation and Management ResearchNeeds References Freshwater: Groundwater and Aquifers Introduction Hydrologic and Geomorphologic Characteristics Biological Characteristics Animal Communities Commercial Uses Habitat Change Invasive Species Pollution Climate Change Conservation and Management Conclusions References Glaciers and Ice Sheets Abstract Global Distribution and Physical Characteristics of Glaciers Past and Future Glacier Changes Hydrological Characteristics and Importance Ecological Characteristics and Importance Challenges and Priorities References The Subtropical Everglades, Florida, USA Introduction The Everglades Historical Geography The Everglades Climate Hydrology Geology Biogeochemistry Habitats Ridge and Slough Landscape (RSL) Tree Islands Mangroves Faunal Communities The Wading Bird Paradox Restoration Underpinnings Conclusion References Relevant Websites Hawaitnqh_699i: The Wetland System of Hawaitnqh_699i Introduction Wetland and Open Water Body Description. Pre-Human Condition Montane Bog Upland Marshes and Swamps Lowland Freshwater Marshes Lowland Saline Marshes and Estuaries Ponds Fresh and Saline Lakes Anchialine Pools Historical Range Viability Change From Historical Condition Current Extent and Range Stressors Development and Altered Hydrology Recreation and Human Access Water Pollution Invasive Animals and Plants Sea Level Rise, Groundwater and Marine Inundation and Flooding Storms and Tsunami Drought and Increasing Temperatures Conservation Efforts Laws and Regulations Summary of Interactions and Conservation Efforts Future Scenarios Wetland and Open Waterbodies Future Scenario One—Status Quo Future Scenario Two—There Is a Slight Increase in the CMPs That Marginally Improves Conservation Management Future Scenario Three—There Is a Small to Moderate Decrease in Conservation Actions in the CMPs That Substantially Decrease ... Future Scenario Four—There Is a Moderate to Large Increase in Conservation Actions in the CMPs That Substantially Improves ... Summary References Pers Comms In Litt The Laurentian Great Lakes of North America The Formation and Physical Environment of the Great Lakes Historical Biological Communities of the Great Lakes Ecosystem Stressors Binational Governance of the Great Lakes Management Opportunities References Biogeography: Lakes—African Great Lakes Background The Main Drivers Chronology of the Main Drivers Human Population Fishery Exploitation Land Use Change Climate Variability and Change Trends of the Drivers in Individual Lakes Lake Victoria Lake Malawi Lake Tanganyika Lake Kivu Lake Edward Lake Albert Lake Turkana Synergy and Lessons From Other Lakes Resilience and Persistence Management of the Drivers Institutional Requirements Conclusions Acknowledgments References The Biogeography of the Glacier Biome A Glacier Walk The Ablation Zone The ELA The Accumulation Zone Glacier Life Around the World Glaciers, Icefields, and Ice-sheets as Habitats for Life Taxa Living on Glacier Ice and Snow Algal Blooms The Biogeography of Macroinvertebrates The Biogeography of Glacier Microbes References Conservation Challenges to Freshwater Ecosystems Abstract What Are Freshwater Ecosystems? Rivers and Streams Lakes andPonds Freshwater Wetlands The Immense Biodiversity of Fresh Waters Freshwater Ecosystem Services Freshwater Biodiversity in Crisis Anthropogenic Stressors Options for Freshwater Ecosystem Conservation Socio-Political Dimensions of Freshwater Conservation References Conservation of Temporary Wetlands What Are Temporary Wetlands? Where Are Temporary Wetlands Found? Diversity of Temporary Wetland Physical Attributes Key Environmental Variables and Classification of Temporary Wetlands The Age of Enlightenment for Temporary Wetlands? From Negative Perception to Valued Resource Why Are Temporary Wetlands Ecologically and Socially Important? Biogeochemistry and Hydrology Biodiversity Socioeconomic What Are the Current Threats and Management Challenges? Inconsistent and Inadequate Regulatory Protections Climate Change Changes in Land Use Management Challenges Ecological Social Approaches for Conserving Temporary Wetlands Acknowledgments References Wetlands of the Mariana Islands Introduction Wetland Description Prehuman Condition Habitat Viability of Prehuman Wetlands: Resiliency, Representation, and Redundancy Change from Prehuman Condition Current Condition Guam Rota Tinian Saipan Anatahan Pagan Primary Wetlands Stressors (Table 7) Development and Altered Hydrology Invasive Plants and Animals Water Pollution Recreation and Human Access Erosion Fire Sea Level Rise, Groundwater and Marine Inundation and Flooding Typhoons Drought and Increasing Temperature Conservation Efforts Laws and Regulations Summary of Interactions and Conservation Efforts Future Scenarios Scenario 1: Status Quo Scenario 2: There Is a Slight Increase in the CMPs that Marginally Improves Conservation Management Scenario 3: There Is a Small to Moderate Decrease in Conservation Actions in the CMPs that Substantially Decrease Conservat ... Scenario 4: There Is a Moderate to Large Increase in Conservation Actions in the CNMPs that Substantially Improves Conserva ... Summary References Lentic Freshwater: Ponds—Aquaculture Ponds Introduction Global Aquaculture Production Freshwater Pond Area Types of Aquaculture Ponds Water Use Pond Management Environmental Impacts Conclusion References Microplastics in Freshwater Environments Abstract Introduction Classification and Types ofMPs MP Sources MP Collection and Identification Distribution of MPs in Freshwaters MPs and Toxic Compounds Interactions of Aquatic Organisms withMPs MPs as a Habitat for Microbes Field Studies on Ingestion and Other Interactions Laboratory Studies Summary References Further Reading The Springs Biome, with an Emphasis on Arid Regions Introduction Background Literature A Conceptual Ecosystem Model Hydrogeology and Geography Source Waters Ecosystem Structure and Classification Geomorphic Microhabitats Geography: Abundance and Density Discharge Water Quality Habitat and Area Springs Biology Biogeography Springs-Dependent Biodiversity Springs Assemblages Ecosystem Ecology Ecological Roles of Springs Trophic Complexity Subsidy Exchange Humans and Springs Uses Springs Ecosystem Conservation Conclusions Acknowledgments References Headwater Streams Introduction Properties of Headwaters Hydrology Geomorphology Water Chemistry Influence of Surroundings on Local Stream Properties Disturbance Regimes Food Resources Biological Diversity Ecosystem Processes Management and Threats References Hawaiian Islands Streams Introduction Description Geology and Water Availability Natural and Physical Boundaries Biotic Components Vegetation Composition and Structure Habitat Viability Prehuman Condition Mixed (Open and Closed) Canopy Riparian Zones and High Bank Stability Low Turbidity Low Plant Growth Habitat Available for Native Species Habitat Viability Current Condition Stressors Channelization and Water Diversion Urbanization Recreation Storms, Flash Floods, Erosion, and Sedimentation Drought and Wildfire Invasive Species Conservation Efforts Management Nonnative animal control Nonnative plant control Restoration and habitat enhancement Monitoring Education and outreach Land Protections Laws and Regulations Habitat Viability Future Scenarios Future Scenario One, Status Quo Future Scenario Two Future Scenario Three Future Scenario Four References Streams of the Mariana Islands Introduction Stream Ecosystem Classification Hydrology Island of Guam Island of Rota Island of Saipan Conservation Future Scenarios Appendix 1 References Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams: A Unique Biome With Important Contributions to Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services What Are Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams? Hydrologically Diverse and Globally Abundant Three-in-One: IRES Contribute to Lotic, Lentic, and Terrestrial Dynamics Biogeochemical Dynamics in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams Biodiversity in Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams From Microbes to Elephants, IRES Support High Biodiversity Strategies for Persistence in IRES Organization of Metacommunities Within IRES Management of Intermittent Rivers and Ephemeral Streams Ecosystem Services Provided by IRES Protection and Management of IRES Future of IRES and Global Change Summary References Restoration of Riparian Habitats Characteristics of Riparian Habitats Ecosystem Services Provided by Riparian Systems Degradation of Riparian Habitats Restoration Policies and Practices: Tools in the Toolbox Land Management Water Management Riparian Restoration Strategies Scaling Up Restoration Efforts Integrated Watershed Management Pro-Active Restoration Planning Under Climate Change Effectiveness Monitoring References Implications of Climate Change to Groundwater Introduction The Groundwater Resource Groundwater Withdrawal Impacts Subsidence Seawater Intrusion Depletions of Interconnected Surface Water Groundwater Pollution Social Attributes of Groundwater Climate Change Temperature Extreme Events Groundwater and Climate Change Impacts of Climate Change on Groundwater Managing Groundwater Under Climate Change Modeling tools Determining sustainable thresholds for groundwater aquifers Recharging aquifers Increasing supply Reducing demand Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater Creating a groundwater drought reserve Water markets, water transfers, and groundwater banking Groundwater information systems Climate Change and Groundwater in California The Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA) New Approaches and Management Trends Final Thoughts References Glaciers and Ancient Carbon Introduction: Glaciers Matter Two Main Sources of Ancient Carbon Overriding Vegetation and Soil Capturing Air-Borne Aerosols Ancient Carbon Beneath, Upon or Within Glaciers: Case Studies Ancient Carbon Beneath Glaciers Surface-Collected Ancient Carbon and Supraglacial Processes Glaciers With Both Overridden and Surface-Collected Ancient Carbon Release and Biological Use of Ancient Carbon Occurrence and Use of Ancient Carbon in Glacier Foreland, Supporting Early Succession Transport and Use of Ancient Carbon in Glacial Rivers Marine Environments Receiving Ancient Carbon From Glaciers Perspectives Combustion-Derived Black Carbon Accelerate Glacier Melting Ancient Carbon Enter Contemporary Food Webs Ancient Carbon Disturbs Radiocarbon Dating References Relevant Website Freshwater: A Glossary of Terminology Used in Freshwater Biology and Management Abstract Introduction A Glossary of Terminology Used in Freshwater Biology and Management References Section 8: Oceans - One Blue Planet A Glossary of Terminology Used in Marine Biology, Ecology, and Geology Glossary Abstract Introduction Further Reading World Maps of Ocean Environment Variables Introduction Statistics Bathymetry Temperature Water movement Oxygen Light Transparency Productivity Salts, pH, and Particulates Ice Conclusions References Relevant Website The Biology, Ecology, and Societal Importance of RazorClams Abstract Biology and Ecology Systematics and Taxonomy Shell Morphology and Anatomy Growth and Reproduction Habitat Biogeography Ecological Importance Societal Importance References Further Reading The Biology, Ecology and Societal Importance of Marine Bryozoa Biology Taxonomy and Systematics Morphology Zooids Ecology Habitat Biogeography Social Importance Economic Ecological Invasive Species Climate Change Conservation References SeagrassBiome Abstract Introduction Taxonomy Environment Biogeography Role in Ecosystems Conservation References Further Reading The KelpBiome Abstract Introduction Morphology Taxonomy Geographic Distribution Abiotic Control Role in Ecosystems Kelp Deforestation Conservation References Marine Ecosystems of the World References The Biological, Ecological, and Ecosystem Roles of Marine Amphipoda Glossary Abstract Introduction General Biology Morphology Sexual Dimorphism Reproduction Ecology and Behavior Introduced and Invasive Amphipoda Marine Freshwater Conclusion References Further Reading Conservation of Giant Clams (Bivalvia: Cardiidae) Abstract Introduction Giant Clams (Subfamily Tridacninae) Biology of GiantClams Ongoing Threats and Challenges Utilization of GiantClams Food Shells Live aquarium industry Deterioration and Loss of Habitats Climate Change Consequences of Declining or Depleted Giant Clam Populations Conservation Measures Legislation and Regulations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES) International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species Local management and enforcement efforts Mariculture of GiantClams Restocking reefs with cultured giantclams Conclusions References The Coral Triangle: The Most Species Rich Marine Region on Earth Biodiversity Significance of the Coral Triangle Region Areas of Biodiversity Importance Threats to Biodiversity Marine Protected Areas References Defining Marine Spatial Units: Realms, Biomes, Ecosystems, Seascapes, Habitats, Biotopes, Communities and Guilds Introduction Mapping Classification Species Guilds and Traits Conclusions References The Biology, Ecology and Societal Importance of Marine Parasites Abstract Introduction Defining Parasites Parasite Diversity Adaptations to the Parasitic Lifestyle Parasite-Host Coevolution Ecology of Parasites Effects of Parasites on Ecosystems Global Biogeography of Parasites Latitudinal gradients Longitudinal gradients Depth gradients Societal Importance of Marine Parasites Public Health Fisheries and Aquaculture Parasites in Applied Research Biological Indicators Environmental Indicators Parasites Potential Response to Climate Change Conclusions References The Biology, Ecology, and Societal Importance of Marine Isopods Abstract Systematics and Taxonomy Morphology Biogeography Habitat Ecology and Life History Parasites Economic and Environmental Impact Acknowledgment References Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems Background Key Terms Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems (MCEs) Upper and Lower Mesophotic Temperate Mesophotic Ecosystem Mesophotic Biodiversity Adaptations Skeletal Adaptations Pigmentation Mixotrophy Conservation and Refuges Further Reading List of Relevant Websites Acknowledgment References Hotspots of Marine Biodiversity Abstract Introduction Designating Marine Hotspots Methods of Mapping Hotspots Application in Marine and Terrestrial Environments Discussion Acknowledgment References The Classification, Diversity and Ecology of Shallow Water Octocorals Systematics and Taxonomy Biology and Morphology Reproduction Octocoral Identification Molecular Markers and Phylogenetic Analyses Marine Biogeography, Ecology and Symbioses Economic and Environmental Importance Octocoral Disease Conclusions and Future Directions Acknowledgments References Marine DNA Metabarcoding What Is DNA Metabarcoding? Applications of Marine DNA Metabarcoding DNA Metabarcoding Limitations Conclusion Further Reading References Biology and Ecology of Zoantharians (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia: Zoantharia) Introduction Morphology Systematics Ecological Interactions Symbiotic Algae Marine Invertebrates as Substrata Habitat Forming Predators Distribution Reproduction and Dispersal Zoogeography Economic Importance Research Trends Acknowledgments References Volume 5 Section 9: Anthromes - Carved up by Humanity The Anthropogenic Biosphere: Lines of Evidence for Sustained Direct Interactions Between Humans and the Environment Introduction Conclusion References Anthromes Introduction Anthromes and the Anthropogenic Biosphere Anthromes Are Mosaics of Used and Novel Ecosystems Ecological Science, Theory, and Education in an Anthropogenic Biosphere Earth Stewardship in the Anthropocene References Further Reading Relevant Website Historical Change in Anthromes Introduction Methodology HYDE Classification System Results and Discussion The Global Scale The Regional Scale The Biome Scale Conclusion Appendix A: Anthromes Classification Flowchart Appendix B: Regional Breakdown Acknowledgments References Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production Abstract Introduction The HANPPMethod Potential Net Primary Production: NPPpot Actual Net Primary Production: NPPact Harvested Net Primary Production: HANPPharv Net Primary Production Lost by Land Use Change: HANPPluc Global Patterns ofHANPP The Potential Correlation of HANPP and Anthropogenic Biomes Local and RegionalHANPP EmbodiedHANPP Critiques of the HANPPMethod Summary References Patterns of Vertebrate Richness Across Global Anthromes Introduction Results and Discussion Conclusion References Urban Social-Ecological Systems Abstract Urban Social-Ecological Systems Key Definitions What Is a ``Social-Ecological System´´? What Is ``Urban´´? Population-based definitions ofurban Biophysical definitions ofurban Governance-based definitions Urbanization Frameworks for Understanding UrbanSESs Comparing Frameworks in Urban SES Research Urban Ecosystems-A Related Concept Conclusion References Urban Forests: Biophysical Features and Benefits Urban Forests and Urban Forestry Biophysical Aspects of Urban Forests What Is “Urban”? Urban Forest Characteristics The Benefits and Values of Urban Forests—Ecosystem Services Structure, Function, Benefits, and Value Calculating Urban Forest Economic Value i-Tree: A case study of calculating urban forest value Externalities of Urban Forests—Ecosystem Disservices Conclusion References Urban Forests as Social-Ecological Systems Actors in the Urban Forest Ownership: Public Versus Private Urban Trees The Complexity of Urban Forest Management The Distribution of Urban Forest Benefits across Urban Areas The Costs of Urban Forests Direct Costs—Management and Maintenance Costs Resulting from Tree Conflicts—Infrastructure Repair and Liability Costs Opportunity Costs—A Public Cost of Urban Forests Urban Forest Sustainability What Does “Sustainability” Mean for Urban Forests? Criteria for Evaluating Urban Forest Sustainability What Shapes Urban Forest as Social-Ecological Systems? Conclusion References Quenching a City’s Thirst: The Shifting Waters of Bangalore A Peopled Planet Setting the Context: Bangalore Engineering Flows of Water and Culture—Bangalore’s Precolonial History Engineering Modernity: The Colonial Tryst With Bangalore Colonization and Changing Demographics of Bangalore City Colonial Notions of Health, Hygiene, and Sanitation Colonial Ideas of Modernity and Technological Advancement Changes in Meanings Ascribed to the Utility of Resources Co-evolution of Novel Ecosystems in Colonial Bangalore Engineering Urban Futures: Independent India, Technocracies, and Their Influence The Independent State and Its Vision Community Collectives and the Promise of Coproduction Conclusion: Quenching Urban Thirsts Within a Changing Waterscape Acknowledgments Further Reading Tree, Herbivore, and Natural Enemy Relationships in Cities Now and in the Future Introduction Arthropod Responses to Urban Features Vegetation and Arthropods in the City Vegetation diversity and complexity Tree species selection Temperature and Arthropods in the City Impervious Surface and Arthropods in the City Regional and Global Patterns: Scaling Up From the City Block Effects of Background Climate on Arthropods in Cities Effects of Vegetation Distribution on Arthropods in Cities Arthropod Invasion Dynamics in Cities Looking Forward: Managing Arthropods on Urban Trees Plant Effects Natural Enemy Control Cities as Sentinels of Climate Change Interacting Effects of Urbanization and Climate Change on Arthropods Managing Arthropods in the City and Beyond References Global and Regional Cropland Anthromes Global Patterns in Cropland Unique Traits of Cropland Anthromes An Expanding Anthrome Regional Heterogeneity in Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Croplands Threats to Cropland Biodiversity Conservation Within Cropland Anthromes Conclusion References Measuring Land Potential and Human Impacts in Rangelands Fundamentals of Land Potential Inherent and Dynamic Properties Resistance and Resilience Land Potential and Ecosystem Services Examples of Anthropogenic Influence on Land Potential Assessing Land Potential Managing Within a Rangeland Potential Framework References Further Reading Relevant Websites Anthromes—Temperate and Tropical Agroforestry Introduction Mediterranean Anthrome (Dehesa, Silvopasture) Components of the System Highland/Lowland/Island Tropical Anthrome (Homegardens and Multi-Strata Systems) Components of the System Temperate Zone Anthrome (Silvopasture, Alley Cropping—Silvoarable) Alley Cropping (Silvoarable) Silvopasture Components of the System Alley Cropping Silvopasture Arid/Semi-Arid Tropical Anthrome (Improved Fallows, Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration, Evergreen Agriculture) Components of the System Summary References The Argentine Pampas: A Novel Ecosystem at the Crossroad Should the Pampas Be Considered a Novel Ecosystem? Historical Drivers of Landscape Change Carbon and Water Dynamics in the Pampas GHGs Emissions and Carbon Balance Carbon Losses and Gains in the Pampas Soils Hydrological Processes in the Pampas Novel Ecosystems Carbon, Water and Ecosystem Services Concluding Remarks References Multifunctional Landscapes Abstract Multifunctionality of Landscapes-Understanding the Concept From Multifunctional to Uniform Landscapes-and BackAgain? Recent Applications and Conceptual Advancements The Capacity of a Landscape to Supply Multiple Functions and Services: Interactions at the LandscapeScale Multifunctional Landscapes-An Ecosystem Service Perspective Why Adopting an Ecosystem Service Perspective on Multifunctionality? First, translating ecosystem functions into ecosystem services is important to better understand land use interests and dec ... Second, including marketable and non-marketable goods can help steering management decisions toward increased sustainability Third, the ecosystem service concept can ease the communication of scientific findings to decision-makers Links to Sustainability and Resilience Toward Increased Multifunctionality of Landscapes Remaining Challenges to Assess Landscape Multifunctionality Selecting relevant ecosystem services and their indicators Assessing the actual use of and demand for ecosystem services Assessing multifunctionality at the rightscale Governance Across Sectors and Scales Implementing a Strategy for Multifunctional Landscapes Conclusions References Biocultural Heritage in Sicilian Olive Groves; The Importance of Heterogeneous Landscapes over the Long Term Introduction Geographical Background Talking With the Trees Biogeography of Woody Vegetation in Sicily Patch Matrix Interactions Within a Millennia Perspective Breaking Points in Time Spatial Nodes of Connection Terraces Coltura promiscua Olea europaea woods remains and trees outside forest Contemporary olive groves The Endurance of Olive Biocultural Heritage in Sicily Conclusion: From Carving up to Transformative Stewardship Acknowledgements References Protected Areas and Anthromes Protected Areas Biodiversity Conservation Anthromes Protected Areas and Anthromes Anthrome Change: 1700–2000 Roads Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas Half Earth, Nature Needs Half, and Other 50% Proposals How Are We Doing? Distribution and Management Biodiversity Conservation Socioeconomic Considerations Moving Forward Conclusion References Further Reading Relevant Websites The Extraordinary Value of Wilderness Areas in the Anthropocene Wilderness Defined The Exceptional Values of Wilderness Biodiversity Conservation Ecosystem Services Human Cultural Diversity The State of Wilderness Conservation Conclusion References Dams: Anthrome Enablers Abstract Man-Made Rivers Dams and Humans Dams and Ecosystems Dam as Creators of Socio-Ecological Alternate Stable States Dam Removal References From Anthrome to Refugium? A Short History of Small-Scale Fisheries in the Anthropocene Introduction Anthromes in Aquatic and Marine Environments The Creation of SSF Shrinking Anthromes Vignette From the Global South: The Tam Giang Lagoon Vignette From the Global North: The Stockholm Archipelago Discussion: From Anthrome to Refugium? Conclusion References Further Reading Endocrine Disruptors and Marine Systems Introduction to Endocrine Disruptors Sources and Fates of Endocrine Disruptors in the Marine Environment Effects of Exposure to Endocrine Disruptors in Marine Organisms Pharmaceutical Estrogens Phenols Plasticizers Organochlorines Organotins Future Directions and Final Comments References Further Reading Soundscape Ecology Introduction Acoustic Niche Hypothesis Spectrographs and Recording Technology Habitat and Soundscape Degradation Soundscapes as a Conservation Tool Soundscape Monitoring—Progress and Potential Conclusions References Soundscapes and Anthromes: A Review of Proximate Effects of Traffic Noise on Avian Vocalization and Communication Introduction Methods Proximate Outcomes of Acoustic Masking Mechanism of Response to Change Ultimate Outcomes of Acoustic Masking Is a Focus on Noise Drowning Out Other Factors? Needs for Future Research: Proximate and Ultimate Outcomes of Acoustic Masking Conclusion References Scarcity and Abundance in the Brazilian Semiarid: The Strategies for Harnessing the Renewable Energy Potential of the Regio ... Introduction Brazilian Semiarid: A Development Model to Be Overcome The Emergence of Modernization of the Northeastern Semiarid and the Permanence of Poverty in the Abundance Final Considerations References Further Reading Promoting the Transfer and Development of Climate-Smart Energy Technologies in Uganda Introduction Uganda Case Study Methodology Gravity Model Gravity Model Data Energy Demand Assigning Costs Results and Discussion Geospatial Electrification Analysis for Renewable Energy Technology Case Study Conclusion Conclusion References Developed Systems in the Mariana Islands Archipelago Introduction Developed System Description Categories of Developed Systems Vegetation Composition and Biodiversity Current Condition System Viability Stressors Development Invasive Species Typhoons Climate Change Wildfires Point Source and Nonpoint Source Pollution Conservation Efforts Invasive Species Management and Control Activities Local and Federal Management Future Scenarios Future Scenario One, Status Quo Future Scenario Two Future Scenario Three Future Scenario Four Conclusion References Hawaitnqh_699i: Anthropogenic Changes—The Developed System of Hawaitnqh_699i Developed System Description Vegetation Structure Vegetation Composition and Biodiversity Physical and Life History Components Pre-Human Condition Current Condition Categories of the Developed System Flora and Fauna Composition and Biodiversity Landownership Stressors Conservation Efforts for the Developed System Invasive Species Fire Watershed and Water Resources Management Vegetation Management Open Space Stakeholder Engagement Interactions of Stressors and Conservation Efforts Future Scenarios Future Scenario One, Status Quo Future Scenario Two Future Scenario Three Future Scenario Four Summary References Section 10: Anthromes - Sustainability in Concept and Practice Sustainability Science in Concept and Practice: An Introduction to Human and Social Systems Introduction What Is Sustainability Science? References Coupled Human and Natural Systems: A Review and Anthrome Case Study Introduction Identification of Human and Natural Systems Scale Legacy Effects and Time Lags Heterogeneity Nonlinear Dynamics, Thresholds, and Catastrophic Change Vulnerability, Resilience, and Resistance Feedback Loops Surprises Using CHANS to Describe and Better Understand Anthromes References Mental Models of Sustainability: The Degrowth Doughnut Model Planet Earth as a Mosaic of Anthromes Safe and Just Operating Space (SJS) Between Planetary Biophysical Boundaries and Sociometabolic Development Thresholds The Degrowth Doughnut: Specifying a Safe and Just Operating Space for a Historic Conceptual and Metabolic Transformation Segments, Themes, and Indicators Safe and Just Operating Space in Biophysical, Socio-Economic and Cultural Quantification Application of the Model References Degrowth Abstract Introducing Degrowth Degrowth Economics: Bringing the Economy Back Into the Biosphere Degrowth as a New Political Imaginary Policy Proposals for Socially Sustainable Economic Degrowth Conclusion References New Economic Paradigms Economic Growth and the Environmental Threat The Root of the Problem Four Alternatives and What They Bring Post-Keynesian economics Critical institutional economics Ecological economics System dynamics Meeting Basic Needs and Living Within the Safe Operating Space Further Reading References Conservation Values and the Value of Conservation Introduction Values and Valuation Conservation Policy—A Brief History Conservation Policy and Conservation Values Conservation Values and Motivational Crowding Conclusion: Policy and Value Pluralism References The Role of Ethics in Valuing Anthromes Introduction Ethics and the Natural Environment Ethical Frameworks for Valuing Anthromes Ethical Conceptions in Descriptive Moral Psychology Ethical Norms of Traditional Moral Theories Ethical Conceptions of Environmental Sustainability Conclusion References Further Reading Relevant Website Conceptualization of Wilderness Introduction Blunt Wilderness Binaries Wilderness Roots and Regionalisms Wilderness Conservation and Environmental Colonialism NatureCultures and Alternative Wilderness Thinking References Using an Ecobiopsychosocialspiritual Approach to Understand and Transform Human Interaction with Anthromes and Biomes Introduction An Ecobiopsychosocialspiritual Approach to Practice The Ecological Dimension The Biological Dimension The Psychological Dimension The Sociological Dimension The Spiritual Dimension Assessing Individuals and Communities with the Ecobiopsychosocialspiritual Approach Case Study A: Assessment Intervening with Individuals and Communities with the Ecobiopsychosocialspiritual Approach Indoor Micro and Mezzo Interventions Outdoor Micro and Mezzo Interventions Indoor Macro Level Interventions Outdoor Macro Level Interventions Case Study A: Intervention Conclusion References To Explain Behavior Change We Need to Research All Stages of This Process: Where Environmental Psychology Needs to Connect ... Abstract Introduction Aim of the Present Article A Disappointment Behavioral Change Research Within Health Psychology Theme 1: Motives for Initiating and Maintaining Behavioral Change Theme 2. Self-Regulation Theme 3. Habits Theme 4. Resources Theme 5. Environment and Social Influences Stage Models of Behavioral Change as Integrative Conceptual Frameworks Implications for Interventions Results of Empirical Test of Hypotheses Derived From theSSBC Coping Planning and Behavior Change-Research Stimulated by theSSBC Conclusion References Delineating the Plate Boundaries: A Review of Integrated Metrics for Healthy and Environmentally Sustainable Diets Introduction The Transformative Potential of Integrated Food Strategies Methods Review of Food Studies Integrating Health and Environment A Growing Demand for Integrated Food Metrics Studies Proposing and Applying Integrated Food Metrics Assessments of health and environmental impacts of common diets Assessments of the environmental implications of shifting to healthier diets, and vice-versa Optimization studies Assessments of the effect of dietary quality indices on the environment Model diets and guiding frameworks Metrics frameworks for integrated food system impact assessments Metrics frameworks for integrated dietary impact assessments A Critique of Existing Food Metrics Adopting a Systems Approach to Developing Food Metrics Frameworks Harmonizing Language and Methodology Generating and Accessing the Necessary Data Toward Better Design Criteria for Integrated Food Metrics Frameworks Conclusions Acknowledgments Funding References The Need for Boundary Spanners in Integrated Water Resource Management Introduction Boundary Spanners History of Boundary Spanning Contemporary Boundary Spanning Building Trust Between Stakeholders Increasing Social Learning Capacity Power Imbalances Scale Mismatch Autonomy Conflict Cooperation Summarizing Boundary Spanning and Integrated Water Resource Management Conclusion References Leadership for Sustainability: Generative Engagement for Change The Past 12 Years What Does It Mean to Be a Leader for Sustainability? Twelve Keys for Understanding and Practicing Generative Engagement as Leadership for Sustainability Conclusion References Further Reading Conflict and Criticism: The Role of Leaders in Influencing Environmental Behavior Abstract Current Situation Literature Review Environmental Behavior Leadership and Environmental Behavior Leaders and Communication for Environmental Behavior Conflict and Environmental Behavior Leadership and the Use of Education for Environmental Behavior Conclusions and FutureStudy References Sense of Place: Shaping and Responding to Anthromes in the Context of Climate Change What Is Sense of Place? What Are Social-Ecological Systems? What Role Does Sense of Place Play in the Development of Anthromes? What Role Do Anthromes Play in Development of Sense of Place? How Does Climate Change Shift Sense of Place and Anthromes? How Does Sense of Place Influence Our Reaction to Climate Change? Resisting Change Slow Response Active Adaptation Transformed Sense of Place Conclusion References Further Reading The Role of Aquariums and Zoos in Encouraging Visitor Conservation Action History of Zoo and Aquarium Education Evolution of Interpretation Techniques Zoos and Aquarium Action Campaigns Seafood Palm oil Domestic Cats Mobile Phone Recycling Balloons Evaluating Zoo and Aquarium Impacts Factors that Lead to Success Pre-visit Factors On-site Factors Post-visit Factors Conclusion References Relevant Websites Cooperatives: An Imperative for a Holistic Environmental Management Abstract Introduction Conceptual Clarification Environmental Management Cooperativism and the Environment KarlPopper MainFocus Popperian-Cooperativism and the Environment Voluntary and Open Membership Democratic Member Control Member Economic Participation Autonomy and Independence Education, Training and Information Cooperation Among Cooperatives Concern for Community Conclusion References Social Media, Sustainability and Organizations Abstract Background of SocialMedia User Characteristics Types of Social Media Applications Social Media in Organizations and Communities Public and Government Organizations Business Organizations Virtual Groups and Communities Social Media Communication and Sustainability An Overview of the Sustainability Construct Challenges in Measuring Sustainability Performance Greenwashing Sustainability and Social Media at Multiple Levels Individual Sustainability and SocialMedia Business Organization Sustainability and SocialMedia Public Organization Sustainability and SocialMedia Community Sustainability and SocialMedia Conclusions References Mass Media Representations of Anthromes Introduction Anthromes in the Climate Change Mass Media Anthromes in the Anthropocene Mass Media Dense Settlements/Cities/Urban Croplands Rangelands Forests Conclusion Acknowledgments References Science Communication: Challenges and Benefits to Conservation Projects Abstract Introduction History of Science Communication Science Communication Challenges: Jargon Science Communication Challenges: Science Literacy Useful Methods to Communicate Science Useful Methods: Framing Useful Methods: DigitalMedia Case Studies Communication Within a Nonprofit Communication From the Government to the Citizens Environmental Behavior Change Communication in High Schools Conclusion References Science Communication in Agriculture: The Role of the Trusted Adviser Introduction Top Down Information Dissemination Trusted Adviser to Practitioner (Middle Down) Role of Extension Crop Advisers Turkey Village Based Advisers France: Systems Approach Trusted Adviser to Researcher/Policy-Maker (Middle Up) Bananas in Uganda: Are Farmers Being Heard? Informing Policy Citizen Connections Hot Shots Program Filling a Need in the Climate Change Debate Conclusion References Relevant websites Sustainability Storytelling Is Not Just Telling Stories About Sustainability Preface Introduction Why Story? Are We Wired for It? Crafting an Effective Sustainability Story Intent and Audience Content Conflict, Challenge, and Failure Show, Don’t Tell The How: Sustainability Competence Sustainability Story Structure: Systems as Story Examples of Sustainability Stories References Further Reading Creating Change for People and Planet: Education for Sustainability Approaches and Strategies Introduction Australia’s Biomes, and Landscapes Under Pressure Sustainability and EfS What Is ESD/EfS? A Chronology of ESD/Education for Sustainability ESD/EfS Across the Globe EfS in Universities Case Study: Australasian Campuses Toward Sustainability (ACTS) EfS in Teacher Education—“The Priority of Priorities” Case Study (for More Detail See Ferreira et al., 2019) EfS in School Curriculum Case Study: The Murray-Darling River Basin and AuSSI-SA EfS in Early Childhood Education Case Study (See Zerella & Thorpe, 2019 for Further Details) Conclusion References Further Reading Relevant Websites Training Wildlife Biologists for Work in Anthromes Private Land Conservation in Global Biomes What Training Do Wildlife Biologists Need? Economics and Business Human Dimensions Entrepreneurship and Policy Communication Conclusions References Further Reading Relevant Websites The Future of Conservation in Anthromes: Narrative Analysis From a Millennial Conservationist Adapting to Anthromes: A Conservationist’s Evolution Embracing More: Inclusion and Diversity Turning Toward Others: Local, Bottom-Up Conservation Efforts Conclusion References Relevant Websites ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE WORLD’S BIOMES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE WORLD’S BIOMES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE WORLD’S BIOMES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE WORLD’S BIOMES ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE WORLD’S BIOMES Copyright ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND DEDICATIONS EDITOR BIOGRAPHIES Editors-In-Chief Editors PERMISSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
