Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics (Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series)

Cover......Page 1
Front Matter......Page 2
Editorial Board......Page 3
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 14
Preface......Page 36
Acknowledgments......Page 38
Radioactivity and the systematics of its use as a chronometer......Page 40
The application of radiometric dating......Page 43
Bibliography......Page 46
Basic features......Page 47
Magnetic dating based on the intensity of remanence......Page 48
Object reconstruction......Page 49
Definition......Page 50
Methods......Page 51
Bibliography......Page 53
Artificial water reservoir triggered earthquakes......Page 54
Common characteristics of RTS sequences......Page 55
Mechanism of triggered earthquakes......Page 57
How long triggered earthquakes will continue at Koyna?......Page 58
Short-term earthquake forecast at Koyna......Page 59
Bibliography......Page 62
T Waves......Page 64
Wavelet Analysis......Page 632
Acoustic thermometry of ocean climate......Page 65
Paleomagnetism, Magnetostratigraphy......Page 638
Bibliography......Page 66
Definition......Page 68
Refraction......Page 70
Reflection......Page 71
Relationships between spreading rate, seismic structure, and ridge-axis morphology......Page 950
Measuring techniques......Page 1470
Attenuation......Page 72
Body-wave modeling......Page 73
Bibliography......Page 74
Paleomagnetic Field Intensity......Page 76
Thermal conductivity......Page 610
Cosmogenic isotope paleointensity measurements......Page 77
Bibliography......Page 78
Definition......Page 1548
Mechanical models......Page 79
Principle and instrumentation......Page 1088
Introduction......Page 80
Standard magnetic data processing corrections......Page 775
General properties of rifts......Page 82
Sedimentation in rifts......Page 85
Magmatism in rifts......Page 86
Metamorphism in rifts......Page 87
P-waves......Page 88
Kinematic classification of rifts......Page 89
Dynamic (genetic) classification of rifts......Page 90
Thermal transients......Page 91
Sedimentary Basins......Page 94
Secular transients......Page 95
Parameters......Page 96
Flow pattern and dynamo mechanism......Page 97
Altimetry and sea level monitoring......Page 1091
Waveform cross-correlation......Page 243
Introduction......Page 1070
Field strength inside the core......Page 98
Timescales......Page 100
Advection versus diffusion of field......Page 101
The configuration of the mantle lithosphere......Page 1104
Bibliography......Page 102
Definition, scope, and aims......Page 103
The viscous torque......Page 104
The topographic torque......Page 105
The gravitational torque......Page 107
The magnetic torque......Page 109
Synthesis......Page 114
Bibliography......Page 115
Introduction......Page 117
Methods......Page 118
Plot triplication......Page 119
Axial magma chamber (melt lens)......Page 120
Oceanic Moho......Page 123
Crustal thickness......Page 124
Faults in the oceanic crust and upper mantle......Page 125
Summary......Page 126
Bibliography......Page 127
Synonyms......Page 128
Bibliography......Page 129
Introduction......Page 130
Definition......Page 1556
Power law (scaling behavior)......Page 336
Drilling, sampling, and monitoring techniques......Page 131
Dynamics of continental crust......Page 132
Applications of the boundary element method......Page 757
Mid-ocean ridge magmatism......Page 133
Mantle plume volcanism......Page 134
Bibliography......Page 1562
Active fault zones......Page 135
Corinth rift laboratory, Greece......Page 136
Fractal dimension and seismicity distribution......Page 339
Subduction zone fault drilling at sea......Page 137
Unconventional resources......Page 138
Bibliography......Page 139
Definition......Page 142
Conclusions......Page 348
Bibliography......Page 349
Bibliography......Page 144
Main results......Page 145
Extrapolation to zero pressure and inferences about composition......Page 174
Qualitative interpretations......Page 154
Definition......Page 972
Seismological observations......Page 157
Summary......Page 1067
Bibliography......Page 159
T......Page 162
Instrumentation......Page 916
Mathematical formulation of Earth rotation......Page 163
Definition and observation of Earth orientation parameters......Page 164
Bibliography......Page 167
The Tidal Force......Page 168
Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat......Page 612
The Earth´s Response......Page 169
Instrumentation, EM......Page 172
Self-compression......Page 173
Definition......Page 175
Definition......Page 176
Introduction......Page 177
Methods......Page 178
Time-reversal and correlation methods......Page 179
Constraints on crustal petrology......Page 181
Bibliography......Page 182
Introduction......Page 183
Characterizing the interior of the Earth with earthquake waves......Page 184
Mantle convection jigsaw......Page 185
Seismic 3D tomography: the Earth scanner......Page 187
An anisotropic and anelastic Earth......Page 188
Observations of anisotropy and dynamic inferences......Page 190
Bibliography......Page 191
Cross-references......Page 192
Introduction......Page 193
Magnetovariational sounding (MVS) and magnetovariational profiling (MVP)......Page 381
Three-dimensional structure and dynamics......Page 196
Tsunami excitation......Page 197
Definition......Page 198
Tomographic techniques......Page 201
Global models......Page 202
Bibliography......Page 203
Examples of EQL......Page 204
Source of EQL and associated electromagnetic (EM) phenomena......Page 205
Cross-references......Page 206
History......Page 207
Macro-anomalies......Page 208
Satellite IR images as possible surface temperature......Page 209
Deep mantle MVS studies......Page 210
Issues in paleoseismology and perspectives......Page 1013
Bibliography......Page 215
Introduction......Page 217
The M8 algorithm......Page 218
Targeting mega-earthquakes......Page 219
Conclusion......Page 220
Earthquake Rupture: Inverse Problem......Page 221
Bibliography......Page 226
Records of sounds......Page 227
Applications of sounds......Page 228
Sonification, education, and art......Page 229
Cross-references......Page 230
Causes of aftershocks......Page 231
Aftershocks and earthquake hazard......Page 232
Definition......Page 233
Representation by a double-couple......Page 234
Focal mechanisms from P-wave first motions......Page 235
Modern focal solutions: inversion of the moment tensor......Page 236
Bibliography......Page 237
Characteristics of foreshocks......Page 238
Summary......Page 239
Early history......Page 240
Location uncertainty......Page 241
Bibliography......Page 244
Definition......Page 246
Local magnitude scales......Page 247
Surface-wave magnitudes......Page 249
Body-wave magnitudes......Page 250
Relationships between magnitude scales and released seismic energy Es......Page 251
Non-saturating magnitude scales......Page 252
Relationship between Mw, Me, and classical magnitudes......Page 254
Summary and conclusions......Page 255
Bibliography......Page 256
Types of earthquakes and related phenomena defined......Page 257
Elastic rebound theory......Page 258
Pre-seismic crustal deformation......Page 260
Co-seismic crustal deformation......Page 261
Post-seismic crustal deformation......Page 262
Observational advances and new discoveries......Page 263
Bibliography......Page 264
Synopsis......Page 265
Uses of early warning......Page 266
Approaches to early warning......Page 267
Summary......Page 269
Bibliography......Page 271
Definition and calculation......Page 272
Summary and outlook......Page 274
Bibliography......Page 275
History of intensity scales......Page 276
Conversion of intensity scales......Page 277
Conversion of intensities to magnitudes......Page 278
Relation of intensities to recorded strong ground motion......Page 279
Bibliography......Page 280
Cross-references......Page 281
The PAGER process......Page 282
Definition and introduction......Page 284
Related systems and uses......Page 285
Introduction......Page 287
Point source models......Page 288
Kinematic models......Page 289
Dynamical fault models......Page 290
Definition......Page 291
Description of strong-ground motion......Page 292
Earthquake source effects on strong-ground motion: near-field effects......Page 293
Wave-propagation effects......Page 294
Strong-ground motion modeling......Page 295
Bibliography......Page 297
Cross-references......Page 299
Rock-fall events......Page 300
Acquisition geometry......Page 1122
Low-frequency earthquakes......Page 301
Indo-Burmese arc......Page 303
Volcano seismology in a wider volcanological context......Page 304
Estimation of magma ascent rate......Page 305
Detection of lahars and pyroclastic flows......Page 306
Summary and conclusions......Page 307
Cross-references......Page 308
Electrical conduction......Page 309
Electrical conductivity of liquid-bearing rocks......Page 311
Upper mantle......Page 312
Electrical structure of the Earth´s mantle......Page 313
Conclusions......Page 314
Introduction......Page 315
Traditional profiling and sounding surveys......Page 316
Two-dimensional resistivity imaging surveys......Page 318
Bibliography......Page 321
Introduction and concept......Page 322
Achievements......Page 323
Continental heat flow......Page 324
Bathymetry......Page 325
Hot spots......Page 326
Radiogenic heat production......Page 327
Present and long-term cooling rates......Page 328
Bibliography......Page 329
Definition......Page 330
Observations......Page 333
Uses of EEJ observations......Page 334
Cross-references......Page 335
Absolute paleointensity measurements......Page 958
A few geophysical applications......Page 1461
Fractional Gaussian noise (fGn)......Page 337
Analyzing geophysical time series......Page 338
Impacts and Earth history......Page 636
Bibliography......Page 340
Introduction......Page 341
Spheroidal oscillations of a uniform elastic sphere......Page 343
Oscillations of an SNREI Earth model......Page 344
Effect of the rotation of the Earth......Page 347
Cross-references......Page 350
Theoretical principles......Page 352
Reference coordinate system......Page 354
Acknowledgments......Page 355
Synonyms......Page 356
Leveling......Page 360
Definition......Page 362
Lax-Wendroff corrections and optimally accurate FD schemes......Page 363
Technological evolution......Page 364
National geodetic reference systems......Page 366
International services......Page 367
Fundamental station for geodesy......Page 368
Bibliography......Page 369
Gravity field of the earth......Page 370
Disturbing potential......Page 371
Methods of in situ measurements......Page 372
Gravity reduction......Page 373
Bibliography......Page 374
Definition......Page 375
Modeling of true polar wander......Page 988
Grotta Gigante horizontal pendulums......Page 376
Bibliography......Page 378
Definition......Page 379
Geoelectromagnetism......Page 380
Background and activities......Page 653
Magnetovariational profiling......Page 382
Bibliography......Page 747
Basic formulas......Page 384
Application to geosciences and future directions......Page 385
Bibliography......Page 390
Introduction......Page 392
Summary......Page 753
Bibliography......Page 1014
Geoid anomaly and tectonics......Page 393
GRACE and coseismic deformation......Page 394
Introduction......Page 395
Definition......Page 664
The Stokes and Molodensky geodetic BVPs......Page 396
Analytical solutions to the geodetic BVPs......Page 397
The operational solution to the geodetic BVPs......Page 398
The treatment of the topography......Page 399
The oceanic geoid and gravity from satellite altimetry......Page 400
Geospatial integration: inundation modeling and mapping......Page 401
Inverse problem......Page 402
Truncated geoid......Page 403
Summary......Page 404
Computation of the GM-contributions......Page 405
Computation of the Deltag-contribution......Page 406
Computation of the terrain contributions......Page 408
Evaluation of satellite altimetry contributions......Page 409
Bibliography......Page 410
Summary......Page 411
Spherical harmonic analysis......Page 412
Maps of the geomagnetic field......Page 413
Recent changes in the geomagnetic field......Page 414
Basic mathematical expression......Page 418
Oceanic thermal isostasy......Page 701
Cross-references......Page 419
Earth´s surface magnetic field measurements......Page 420
Overhauser magnetometer data processing......Page 422
Fluxgate magnetometer data processing......Page 423
Summary......Page 424
The geomagnetic polarity timescale......Page 425
The changing frequency over time and the duration of geomagnetic reversals......Page 426
The morphology of geomagnetic reversals......Page 427
Dynamo mechanisms and reversals......Page 429
Outlook: The future of geomagnetic reversals......Page 430
Bibliography......Page 431
Introduction......Page 433
Kinematic dynamo theory......Page 435
Energetics of the geodynamo......Page 436
Magnetohydrodynamic theory of the geodynamo......Page 437
Time dependence of the geodynamo......Page 439
Definition......Page 440
Wellbore environment......Page 441
Principles......Page 442
Instrumentation......Page 443
In the oil industry......Page 445
Heat flux......Page 447
Hydrogeologic applications......Page 448
Bibliography......Page 449
The resource......Page 450
Geothermal heat pump (GHP) technology......Page 451
Licensing, environmental benefits......Page 452
Cross-references......Page 453
The geothermal method of temperature reconstruction......Page 454
Tutorial......Page 455
Temperature-depth profiles......Page 456
Bibliography......Page 457
Continental flood basalts and continental breakup......Page 902
Bibliography......Page 458
Point positioning......Page 459
Transdimensional approach......Page 460
Receiver......Page 461
Measurements......Page 462
Carrier phase model......Page 463
Measurement noise......Page 464
Orbit and satellite clock errors......Page 465
Tropospheric refraction......Page 466
Relative positioning......Page 467
Conclusion and outlook......Page 468
Bibliography......Page 469
Introduction......Page 470
Plate motions......Page 471
Steady ``Interseismic Deformation´´......Page 473
Coseismic deformation......Page 476
Postseismic deformation......Page 477
Transient fault movements and more complex models of the earthquake cycle......Page 480
Volcano deformation......Page 481
Glacial isostatic adjustment and sea level studies......Page 482
Bibliography......Page 484
Introduction......Page 488
Metal......Page 489
Gravity sensor natural period, sensitivity, and seismicnoise......Page 490
Scale factor changes......Page 491
Sensor motion and orientation......Page 492
Summary......Page 493
Bibliography......Page 494
Formulation of the problem......Page 495
Gravity anomalies: conditions and enhancement......Page 496
Inverse method......Page 497
Bibliography......Page 499
Spectral modeling......Page 500
Definition......Page 501
Introduction......Page 502
Applications......Page 503
Bibliography......Page 504
Analytical methods......Page 505
New approach based on finite element analysis (FEA)......Page 506
Klamath mountains and cascade range (model-based space domain)......Page 507
Bibliography......Page 509
Historical notes......Page 510
Newton´s law of gravitation......Page 511
Spherical harmonics......Page 513
The disturbing potential......Page 515
Low-degree harmonics......Page 516
Low-degree harmonics as density moments......Page 517
Normal reference field......Page 519
Earth´s internal gravitational field......Page 520
Bibliography......Page 522
Modeling temporal geoid variations......Page 523
GRACE data errors......Page 524
Hydrology......Page 525
Summary......Page 526
Bibliography......Page 527
Introduction......Page 528
Tides......Page 529
Free oscillation of the Earth......Page 530
Crustal deformation associated with quakes......Page 531
Bibliography......Page 532
Introduction......Page 533
Microscopic falling test masses......Page 534
Summary......Page 535
Principle idea of airborne gravity......Page 536
Scalar gravity meters......Page 537
Bibliography......Page 538
Potential function......Page 539
Newton´s law and Newtonian potential......Page 540
Anomalies......Page 541
Units and gravitational constant......Page 542
Definition......Page 543
Geodesy, gravity field, and scientific applications: why?......Page 544
Classical ways of measuring the Earth´s gravity field......Page 545
Overview of satellite dynamics methods......Page 546
Equations of motion......Page 547
General form of the equations......Page 548
The solution of the inverse problem......Page 549
Conclusion and vision of the future of gravity mapping from satellite......Page 550
Bibliography......Page 551
Introduction......Page 552
Drift correction......Page 553
Base loop correction......Page 554
Drift correction......Page 555
Reconnaissance survey......Page 556
The gravity modeling from a theoretical point of view......Page 557
The linear inverse gravimetric problem......Page 559
Spectral approaches......Page 561
Bibliography......Page 562
Key parameters......Page 563
A note on units......Page 564
Free-air correction (Figure2c)......Page 565
Bouguer correction (Figure2d)......Page 566
Atmospheric correction......Page 567
Computation example: the Central Andes......Page 568
Cross-references......Page 571
Introduction......Page 572
Local and regional gravimetric models......Page 573
Signal representation and data characteristics......Page 574
The recent gravity-mapping satellite missions......Page 578
State-of-the-art global gravitational modeling......Page 580
Model evaluation and accuracy assessment......Page 583
Bibliography......Page 584
Introduction......Page 586
Gravitational gradients......Page 587
Other coordinate systems......Page 588
Models and modeling......Page 589
Measurement error analysis......Page 591
Gradiometry......Page 593
Applications......Page 598
Bibliography......Page 599
Introduction......Page 600
1 November 1755: the advance of rationalism......Page 601
18 April 1906: the archetype of earthquakes......Page 602
The ten deadliest earthquakes......Page 605
Bibliography......Page 606
Definition......Page 608
Fundamentals of SAR imaging and SAR data......Page 1080
Thermal structure......Page 611
Sources of heat......Page 613
Mechanisms of heat transport......Page 614
Global distribution of continental heat flow......Page 616
Latent heat......Page 1467
Theory of wave propagation and fundamental concepts......Page 620
Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, II: Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity......Page 621
Introduction......Page 973
Deep borehole measurements......Page 622
Heat-flux signals from hydrothermal circulation......Page 623
The signature of subduction......Page 627
Summary......Page 628
Bibliography......Page 629
Geology of impact structures......Page 633
Geophysics of impact structures......Page 635
Basic resistivity instruments......Page 639
Multielectrode and multichannel systems......Page 640
Automated resistivity monitoring systems......Page 641
Bibliography......Page 642
The revolution......Page 1094
Electric field measurement......Page 644
Magnetic field measurement......Page 645
Data acquisition systems......Page 646
International Geophysical Year......Page 647
Mechanical properties at different timescales......Page 732
Operations......Page 648
Achievements......Page 649
International Gravity Formula......Page 650
Bibliography......Page 651
More examples......Page 652
Legacy......Page 654
Perspectives......Page 655
The Planet Earth Institute......Page 656
Geophysical inversion......Page 657
Artificial neural networks (ANNs)......Page 658
Summary......Page 662
Bibliography......Page 663
Background......Page 665
Optimization......Page 666
Applications......Page 668
Introduction......Page 671
Linear inverse problems......Page 672
Minimum norm inverse......Page 673
Rao-Mitra inverse......Page 674
Continuous inverse problem......Page 675
Discrete inverse problem......Page 676
Summary......Page 677
Introduction......Page 1146
Magnetic measurements......Page 678
Bayesian inference......Page 679
Fixed dimension approach......Page 680
A simple example......Page 681
Bibliography......Page 683
Inverse of A......Page 684
Resolution matrices......Page 685
Waveforms: convolution, deconvolution......Page 1127
Definition......Page 686
Concepts and applications......Page 687
Current investigations......Page 690
The long-term strength of the lithosphere......Page 693
Isostasy, landscape evolution, and mantle dynamics......Page 695
Bibliography......Page 698
Normalizing compositional elevation......Page 702
Continental thermal state......Page 703
The North American Cordillera......Page 705
Bibliography......Page 706
What can BEM do?......Page 708
Prolongation of land mass......Page 709
Locating the foot of the continental slope......Page 711
Bibliography......Page 713
Lithosphere, Continental......Page 714
Thermal models......Page 715
Seismological/compositional models - tectosphere......Page 716
Lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary......Page 718
Introduction......Page 923
Summary......Page 720
The thermal boundary layer of mantle convection......Page 721
Three contributions to the surface heat flux......Page 722
Elevation correction......Page 723
Heat flux and heat production......Page 724
The Moho heat flux......Page 726
Magnitude and frequency of paleoearthquakes......Page 727
Radiative conductivity......Page 730
Bibliography......Page 1097
Bibliography......Page 731
Observations of flexural behavior and effective long-term strength of the lithosphere......Page 733
Viscous-ductile properties......Page 735
Mechanical properties of oceanic lithosphere versus continental lithosphere......Page 736
Definition......Page 737
Mechanical properties of the lithosphere and styles of tectonic deformation......Page 738
Application of remote sensing to geophysics......Page 1075
Traveltime tomography and inverison......Page 739
Definition and introduction......Page 740
Introduction......Page 1109
The uppermost mantle lithosphere......Page 741
Ophiolites, ocean drilling, and the ocean crust......Page 742
Seismic studies of the ocean crust......Page 743
The mid-ocean ridges......Page 744
Along-axis variations in ridge processes and slow-spreading ridges......Page 745
Summary......Page 748
Seafloor depth......Page 749
Plate cooling models......Page 752
Bibliography......Page 754
Cross-references......Page 755
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy......Page 756
Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS)......Page 758
AMS: applications in geology and geophysics......Page 760
AARM: anisotropy of anhysteretic remanence......Page 765
Application to geophysical and geological problems......Page 921
Bibliography......Page 766
Introduction......Page 768
Bibliography......Page 770
World magnetic anomalies - WDMAM......Page 771
Quantitative geological interpretations......Page 773
Bibliography......Page 774
Definition......Page 980
Temperature dependence......Page 1465
Micro-leveling......Page 776
Specific corrections......Page 777
The pseudo-gravity transform......Page 778
Image display of magnetic field data......Page 779
Bandpass and matched filters......Page 780
The modulus of the analytic signal......Page 781
The Werner method......Page 782
Bibliography......Page 783
Multigrid......Page 785
Domain width versus grain size......Page 786
Temperature dependence of domain structure......Page 787
Micromagnetic models......Page 788
Styles of domains observed in magnetic minerals of paleomagnetic significance......Page 789
Domain wall widths......Page 790
Experimental evidence for local energy minimum (LEM) domain states......Page 791
Evolution of magnetic domain structures at elevated temperatures......Page 792
Magnetic domain structure in magnetite at low temperatures......Page 793
Bibliography......Page 795
Cross-references......Page 796
Advantages and limitations......Page 797
Summary......Page 799
Statistical testing of paleomagnetic data......Page 800
Survey design......Page 801
Survey specifications......Page 802
Data processing......Page 803
Removal of geomagnetic field......Page 804
Cross-references......Page 805
Magnetic materials/rocks......Page 806
Measurement of magnetic field and magnetic anomaly......Page 808
Cross-references......Page 809
Sources of errors......Page 810
Features of the lithospheric satellite-derived magnetic field......Page 811
Bibliography......Page 812
Observatory and semi-long-term measurements......Page 813
Solar radiation and quiet day variations......Page 815
Uses of observatory data......Page 816
Marine magnetic surveys......Page 818
Summary......Page 819
Introduction......Page 820
Bibliography......Page 1041
Spatial and temporal description......Page 821
Inverse problem and implementation......Page 823
Potpourri of recent global models......Page 824
Regional field modeling......Page 825
Wavelet analysis......Page 826
Core magnetic field at core-mantle boundary......Page 827
Lithospheric magnetic field over the Arctic region......Page 828
Bibliography......Page 830
Electromagnetic pulsations......Page 831
Energy densities at given points and directions......Page 832
Magnetic storms and society......Page 833
Bibliography......Page 834
Introduction......Page 835
Aeromagnetic and marine compilations......Page 837
Satellite compilations......Page 838
Preparation of the global magnetic anomaly map......Page 839
Line-leveling of data......Page 840
Merging satellite models......Page 841
The GAMMA model......Page 842
Earth magnetic anomaly grid (EMAG2)......Page 844
Bibliography......Page 847
Cross-references......Page 848
Introduction......Page 1183
Scalar (quantum) magnetometers......Page 849
Near source surface reflections and conversions (depth phases)......Page 850
Optically pumped magnetometers......Page 851
Absolute accuracy and precision......Page 852
Absolute measurement......Page 853
Quantum vector magnetometers......Page 854
Introduction......Page 855
Cross-references......Page 1200
Least squares transfer function estimation......Page 856
Robust estimation......Page 857
Error estimates......Page 859
Strike and distortion analysis......Page 860
What is magnetotellurics?......Page 861
Principles of depth sounding......Page 862
Effects of lateral heterogeneities......Page 863
Current strategies for MT interpretation......Page 866
Measurement techniques......Page 867
Cross-references......Page 868
Modeling to obtain induced magnetic variations from the conductivity distribution: Interpret in terms of geology and structure......Page 869
Cross-references......Page 870
Convective onset and the Rayleigh number......Page 871
Thermal boundary layers and the Nusselt number......Page 873
Energy sources for mantle convection and Earth´s thermo-chemical history......Page 875
Mantle rheology......Page 877
Structure of mantle convection and mantle mixing......Page 880
The oldest problem in mantle convection......Page 882
The plate generation problem......Page 883
Summary......Page 886
Bibliography......Page 887
Definition and introduction......Page 890
Seismic velocity models for D......Page 891
Coseismic seismic signals......Page 1224
Introduction......Page 893
Seismic velocity anisotropy in D......Page 894
Bibliography......Page 895
Global hotspot distribution and hotspot fixity......Page 896
Evidence for mantle plumes......Page 897
Geochemistry of mantle plumes......Page 898
Plume melting and plume strength......Page 901
LIP magmatism and environmental effects......Page 903
Plume-ridge interaction......Page 904
Future directions......Page 905
Bibliography......Page 906
Laboratory experiments......Page 908
Observational data sets......Page 909
Results of formal inversion......Page 911
Compatibility of the GIA-based viscosity model with that required by models of the mantle convection process......Page 912
Cross-references......Page 915
Definition......Page 918
Introduction......Page 919
Algorithms without overlap......Page 920
Definition......Page 922
Accuracy and numerical dispersion......Page 925
Boundary conditions......Page 928
Source implementations......Page 929
Bibliography......Page 930
Finite element model of 2-D Poisson equation......Page 931
Finite element models of the 2-D Navier-Stokes equations......Page 932
Introduction......Page 934
Alternating field demagnetizers......Page 981
Two-grid scheme......Page 935
Generalizations......Page 937
Summary......Page 938
Cross-references......Page 939
Ocean bottom seismometers......Page 940
Wavelets......Page 1558
General principle......Page 942
P-to-S converted waves......Page 943
Wide-aperture (wide-azimuth) studies......Page 944
Conclusions......Page 945
Bibliography......Page 946
Morphology and spreading rates of midoceanic ridge......Page 947
Internal structure of the midoceanic ridge......Page 948
Cross-References......Page 951
Introduction......Page 952
Introduction......Page 1063
The central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB)......Page 954
Natural remanent magnetization (NRM)......Page 955
Cross-references......Page 957
Relative paleointensity measurements......Page 959
Outlook for InSAR geodesy......Page 1085
Bibliography......Page 962
Field and laboratory techniques......Page 964
Calibration and correlation......Page 966
Strengths and weaknesses of magnetic stratigraphy......Page 968
Some applications and implications......Page 969
Techniques of sampling, measurement, and analysis......Page 975
Summary......Page 976
Analysis......Page 977
Determination of paleomagnetic poles......Page 979
Thermal demagnetizers......Page 982
Cross-references......Page 983
Definition and introduction......Page 984
Measure of true polar wander......Page 985
Is a reference frame based on hotspots valid?......Page 987
An integrated explanation for polar wander?......Page 989
Bibliography......Page 992
The geocentric axial dipole......Page 994
Rock magnetism......Page 995
Remanent magnetizations......Page 996
Magnetic polarity reversals......Page 999
Environmental magnetism......Page 1002
Introduction......Page 1003
Fault identification and slip rate......Page 1004
Evidence for paleoearthquake......Page 1006
Time constraints of paleoearthquakes......Page 1007
Off-fault paleoseismology......Page 1010
Introduction......Page 1016
Balance between buoyancy forces and viscous dissipation......Page 1017
Plate driving forces: lithospheric models......Page 1019
Plate driving forces: whole-mantle models......Page 1020
Bibliography......Page 1021
Introduction......Page 1022
The issue of water in the TZ......Page 1024
Kinematics of the Southern Pacific and Atlantic, and its relations to climate variations and topographic growth in the Andes......Page 1025
Plate motion changes in the Indian Ocean......Page 1027
Conclusions......Page 1028
Bibliography......Page 1029
Introduction......Page 1030
Evolution of earth´s tectonic regimes......Page 1031
Criteria for recognizing plate tectonics in the precambrian geological record......Page 1033
Summary and conclusions......Page 1034
Logic tree......Page 1035
Plate motions and Euler´s theorem......Page 1037
Divergent motions......Page 1038
Hot-spots as a reference frame......Page 1039
Record of continental separation in the ocean-floor......Page 1040
Basic concepts......Page 1042
Gassmann´s equation and fluid substitution......Page 1043
Bibliography......Page 1044
Cauchy´s stress and strain......Page 1045
Navier´s equation......Page 1046
Fourier transforms and plane waves......Page 1047
Green´s function retrieval from correlations......Page 1048
Bibliography......Page 1050
Cross-references......Page 1051
Potassium radioactivity in the Earth´s core......Page 1052
Conclusions......Page 1055
Bibliography......Page 1056
Synonyms......Page 1057
Radiogenic heat generation......Page 1058
Tabulated data......Page 1059
Calculated heat generation rate......Page 1060
Measuring techniques......Page 1061
Heat generation and geoneutrinos......Page 1062
Ground network......Page 1089
Source of RM......Page 1064
Detrital remanent magnetization (DRM)......Page 1065
Isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM)......Page 1066
Bibliography......Page 1068
Definition......Page 1069
Remote sensing......Page 1071
Tectonic studies......Page 1072
Summary......Page 1073
Introduction......Page 1074
Bibliography......Page 1077
Cross-references......Page 1078
Fundamental principles of InSAR......Page 1081
InSAR processing......Page 1083
Bibliography......Page 1087
GNSS satellites......Page 1090
Summary......Page 1092
Ridge axis geometry, morphology, and crustal formation......Page 1096
Basin types......Page 1098
Conceptual models of basin formation......Page 1099
The configuration of the crust beneath sedimentary basins......Page 1103
Heat flow in sedimentary basins......Page 1105
Bibliography......Page 1106
Basic mathematical description......Page 1110
Seismological methods......Page 1112
Origin of anisotropy......Page 1114
Structure and dynamics of the upper boundary layer......Page 1115
Summary......Page 1116
Bibliography......Page 1117
Introduction......Page 1120
Seismic sources......Page 1121
Introduction......Page 1124
Kinematics of the seismic signal (primaries)......Page 1125
Velocity: processing point of view......Page 1126
The processing flow: putting it all together......Page 1130
Noise as a seismic source......Page 1135
Definition......Page 1136
Diffraction theories......Page 1137
Introduction......Page 1138
Perturbation theory: Born and Rytovapproximation......Page 1139
Summary......Page 1140
Mineral physics data on the phase transitions in the TZ......Page 1141
Types of tsunamis......Page 1537
Topography and sharpness of TZ discontinuities......Page 1142
Summary......Page 1144
Bibliography......Page 1145
The Cornell-McGuire PSHA methodology......Page 1148
Estimation of seismic source parameters......Page 1149
Source-free PSHA procedures......Page 1152
Alternative earthquake recurrence models......Page 1154
Uncertainties in PSHA......Page 1156
Controversy......Page 1157
Summary......Page 1158
Bibliography......Page 1159
Definition......Page 1160
Inversion theory......Page 1161
Five types of seismic imaging methods......Page 1163
Full waveform inversion......Page 1164
Migration velocity analysis......Page 1165
Multiscale waveform inversion......Page 1168
Current status and future of seismic imaging......Page 1169
Requirements for instruments......Page 1173
Inertial seismometers: basic principles......Page 1174
Mechanical design......Page 1175
Installation......Page 1177
Summary......Page 1178
Example 1. Seismic microzonation based on geomorphological classification maps......Page 1179
Example 2. Seismic microzonation based on dense borehole data and GIS......Page 1180
Bibliography......Page 1182
Basic properties of earthquake and explosion signals......Page 1184
The different steps in explosion monitoring......Page 1185
Methods of identification......Page 1186
Yield estimation......Page 1188
Evasion......Page 1190
Summary......Page 1193
Cross-references......Page 1195
Types of seismic noise......Page 1196
Enhancing signal over noise......Page 1197
Use of noise as signal......Page 1199
Introduction......Page 1201
Lowercase letters and signs......Page 1202
Reflected waves with conversion at the reflection point......Page 1203
Ray-path diagrams for some of the IASPEI standard phases......Page 1204
Core phases......Page 1209
Surface waves......Page 1210
Bibliography......Page 1211
Introduction......Page 1212
Rock velocities......Page 1214
Velocity anisotropy......Page 1215
Bibliography......Page 1216
Introduction......Page 1217
Main phases of seismic quiescence and activation......Page 1218
Physical mechanisms leading to seismic quiescence and activation......Page 1221
Summary......Page 1222
Bibliography......Page 1223
Transient seismic signals......Page 1225
M 9.1 Sumatra earthquake of 2004 and transient seismic signals......Page 1226
Bibliography......Page 1227
Mantle structure......Page 1229
Crustal structure......Page 1232
Summary......Page 1233
Onset times......Page 1234
Normal modes and surface waves......Page 1235
Finite-frequency tomography......Page 1236
Types of seismic waves......Page 1237
Velocity variation with temperature for some reservoir rocks......Page 1238
Introduction......Page 1239
Statistical description of the Earth......Page 1249
Finite-difference method......Page 1240
Anisotropy......Page 1241
Discontinuous Galerkin method......Page 1242
Boundary element and indirect boundary element methods (BEM & IBEM)......Page 1243
Analytic solutions for nonhomogeneous media......Page 1245
Boundaries......Page 1246
Bibliography......Page 1247
Analysis of transmission fluctuations......Page 1251
Envelope modeling: Markov approximation......Page 1253
Envelope modeling: radiative transfer......Page 1255
Global-scale scattering......Page 1256
Green function retrieval......Page 1257
Monitoring temporal variations......Page 1259
Bibliography......Page 1260
Cross-references......Page 1262
Example: seismic zonation map of china (2001)......Page 1263
Introduction......Page 1269
Noise source origin and distribution......Page 1270
Noise-based seismic imaging......Page 1271
Noise-based monitoring......Page 1272
Bibliography......Page 1274
Mapping using pencil and paper; mechanical migration......Page 1275
2-D, 3-D, wide-azimuth 3-D acquisition and migration......Page 1276
Time migration, depth migration......Page 1277
Velocity estimation......Page 1278
Reflected wavefield amplitude normalized by source wavefield amplitude......Page 1279
One-way wave-equation migration (OWEM)......Page 1280
Migration examples......Page 1281
The evolving role of migration in seismic data processing......Page 1282
Introduction......Page 1283
Basic equations of the seismic ray method......Page 1284
Eikonal equation. Polarization vector......Page 1286
Ray tracing and travel-time computation......Page 1287
Transport equation. Computation of ray-theory amplitudes......Page 1288
Dynamic ray tracing. Paraxial approximations......Page 1290
Coupling ray theory for S waves in anisotropic media......Page 1291
Effects of structural interfaces......Page 1292
Ray-theory elastodynamic Green function......Page 1293
Ray perturbation methods......Page 1294
Concluding remarks. Applications, modifications, and extensions of the ray method......Page 1295
Bibliography......Page 1296
Receiver function technique......Page 1297
Separation of P and S waves......Page 1298
Deconvolution......Page 1299
Moveout correction and summation......Page 1300
CCP stack and migration......Page 1302
Waveform modeling......Page 1304
Summary......Page 1306
Bibliography......Page 1307
Introduction......Page 1308
Simple plane wave synthetics......Page 1309
Theory......Page 1311
Computational issues......Page 1312
Extension to laterally heterogeneous media......Page 1313
Summary......Page 1317
Introduction......Page 1318
Anelastic hysteresis......Page 1319
Velocity dispersion......Page 1320
Stochastic dispersion......Page 1321
The attenuation operator for body waves......Page 1322
Shear versus bulk attenuation......Page 1324
Thermal activation......Page 1325
Regional variations......Page 1326
Bibliography......Page 1327
Cross-references......Page 1328
Waveform modeling......Page 1329
Inverse method......Page 1332
Strategies for choosing frequencies......Page 1334
Preprocessing for field data waveform tomography......Page 1336
Reflection-seismic waveform tomography......Page 1338
Historical context......Page 1340
Do intraplate and interplate earthquakes scale differently?......Page 1341
Examples......Page 1342
Summary or conclusions......Page 1343
Interplate earthquakes......Page 1344
Shallow inland intraplate earthquakes......Page 1346
Intraslab earthquakes......Page 1347
Intermediate-depth earthquakes: double seismic zone......Page 1349
Formation of a belt of intraslab seismicity in the slab crust beneath northeast Japan......Page 1350
Deep earthquakes......Page 1351
Summary......Page 1352
Bibliography......Page 1353
Introduction......Page 1354
Crustal waves; recording distances 0-10......Page 1355
Body waves traversing the mantle; recording distances 10-103......Page 1358
Body waves traversing the core; recording distances 103 and beyond......Page 1359
Body waves from intermediate-focus and deep-focus earthquakes......Page 1360
Surface waves......Page 1361
Bibliography......Page 1362
International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks......Page 1363
International Monitoring System......Page 1365
Regional seismic networks......Page 1366
Euro-Med region......Page 1370
China......Page 1371
Bibliography......Page 1372
The GEM initiative......Page 1373
Scientific framework......Page 1375
The hazard module......Page 1376
The risk module......Page 1377
Outcome and future......Page 1378
Introduction......Page 1379
Advances in seismology, potentially relevant to CTBT monitoring......Page 1380
``Forensic seismology´´: evidences and judgments......Page 1381
Bibliography......Page 1382
Introduction......Page 1383
Measuring rotational motions......Page 1384
G Ring laser and recording teleseisms......Page 1385
Strong-motion inertial angular sensors......Page 1387
Near-field seismology......Page 1388
Using explosions to study rotational motions......Page 1390
Conclusion......Page 1391
Bibliography......Page 1392
Introduction......Page 1394
Fundamental features of shear-wave splitting in the crust......Page 1396
Classes of anisotropic symmetry and shear-wave splitting......Page 1397
Shear-wave window......Page 1398
Shear-wave singularities......Page 1399
Shear-wave splitting in the upper mantle......Page 1400
The new geophysics......Page 1401
Summary......Page 1402
Bibliography......Page 1403
Cross-references......Page 1404
Single-channel seismics......Page 1405
Multichannel seismics......Page 1406
Commonly used high-resolution single- and multichannel seismic sources......Page 1407
Cross-references......Page 1412
Long-term slow slip events......Page 1413
Low-frequency tremor and short-term slow slip......Page 1416
Scaling relation......Page 1417
Mechanism of slow earthquake......Page 1418
Concluding remarks......Page 1419
Bibliography......Page 1420
Definition......Page 1421
Introduction: basic formulas......Page 1422
Boundary Value Problems (BVP) of potential theory......Page 1424
Spherical Harmonic Analysis (SHA): numerical techniques......Page 1425
Practical aspects......Page 1427
Bibliography......Page 1430
Empirical relations......Page 1431
Stochastic models of earthquake occurrence......Page 1432
Analysis of synthetic earthquake catalogues......Page 1433
Definition......Page 1434
Morphology and nomenclature......Page 1435
Thrust zone......Page 1436
Kinematics......Page 1437
Thermal structure, plate buoyancy, mantle flow......Page 1438
Fate of the downgoing plate: devolatilization and metamorphism......Page 1440
Melting and the volcanic arc......Page 1441
Seismic imaging of the subduction zone......Page 1442
Bibliography......Page 1443
Definition......Page 1445
Group and phase velocity......Page 1447
Fundamental mode studies (dispersion)......Page 1448
Noise cross-correlation methodology......Page 1449
Inversion using overtones......Page 1450
Full waveform inversions......Page 1452
Effects of scattering and the Born approximation......Page 1453
Source studies using surface waves......Page 1455
Bibliography......Page 1456
Cross-references......Page 1458
Introduction......Page 1546
Sources of T waves......Page 1460
Thermal storage properties......Page 1462
Methods and techniques in very long baseline interferometry......Page 1549
Heat capacity......Page 1463
Isobaric and isochoric specific heat capacity......Page 1464
Volumetric heat capacity: thermal capacity......Page 1466
Bibliography......Page 1469
Indirect methods......Page 1471
Thermal conductivity of minerals and rocks......Page 1475
Radiative thermal conductivity......Page 1476
Variation with temperature......Page 1477
Variation with other factors......Page 1481
Variation with temperature......Page 1483
Variation with pressure......Page 1484
Acknowledgments......Page 1485
Bibliography......Page 1486
Cross-references......Page 1487
History......Page 1488
Location of features in the velocity model......Page 1489
Summary......Page 1490
Cross-references......Page 1491
Background......Page 1492
Forward modeling......Page 1493
Algorithms......Page 1498
Model assessment......Page 1502
Future......Page 1507
Bibliography......Page 1510
Tsunami = killer wave?......Page 1512
Tsunami period, velocity, and wavelength......Page 1513
Tsunami eigenfunctions......Page 1514
Tsunami excitation by earthquakes......Page 1516
Tsunami excitation from submarine landslides......Page 1518
Tsunami excitation from impacts......Page 1519
Tsunami propagation......Page 1520
Tsunami shoaling and run-up......Page 1523
Tsunami samples......Page 1525
Tsunami forecasting......Page 1530
Definition......Page 1532
Tsunami hazard in the Bay of Bengal......Page 1533
Seismicity of the northern Sunda arc region and tsunami hazard......Page 1534
Sumatra-Andaman arc region......Page 1535
Bibliography......Page 1536
Seismic network......Page 1538
Sea-level network......Page 1539
Scenario database......Page 1540
Types of tsunami advisories......Page 1541
Bibliography......Page 1543
Cross-references......Page 1544
VSP applications......Page 1547
Physical principles......Page 1550
VLBI networks......Page 1551
Reference systems and tectonics......Page 1552
Bibliography......Page 1553
Cross-references......Page 1554
The inversion formula......Page 1557
Wavelet spectrum amplitude and phase......Page 1559
Discrete wavelet transform......Page 1560
Dispersion analysis......Page 1561
Cross-references......Page 1563
Author Index......Page 1564
Subject Index......Page 1566