Encyclopedia of social measurement, Volume 1

Editorial Advisory Board......Page 2
Eysenck, Hans Jürgen,  Pages 939-945, Rod Buchanan.pdf......Page 0
Editor Biography......Page 3
Executive Advisory Board......Page 4
Foreword......Page 5
Preface......Page 6
 Social Units......Page 9
 Generalizing about Access......Page 10
 Preexistant or Ongoing Access......Page 11
 The Approach......Page 12
 Inside the Unit......Page 13
 Situated, Negotiated Secondary Access......Page 14
 Further Reading......Page 15
 Financial and Management Accounting......Page 17
 The Financial Accounting Package......Page 18
 Other Items......Page 19
 Accounting Theory......Page 20
 The Balance Sheet......Page 21
 Conclusion......Page 22
 Further Reading......Page 23
 What are Administrative Records?......Page 25
 Private Sector Databases......Page 26
 How are Administrative Records Data Similar to Other Social Science Data?......Page 27
 How are Administrative Records Data Different from Other Social Science Data?......Page 28
 How can Administrative Records Data be Used Effectively in Social Science?......Page 29
 Weaknesses......Page 31
 A Solution to Some Weaknesses......Page 32
 Further Reading......Page 33
 Introduction: The Age-Period-Cohort Conundrum......Page 35
 Statistical Attempts to Separate Age-Period-Cohort Effects......Page 37
 Conclusions......Page 39
 Further Reading......Page 40
 Introduction......Page 41
 Seeking Statistics Invariant to Aggregation: The Conceptual Problem......Page 42
 Seeking Statistics Invariant to Aggregation: The Weighted Average......Page 43
 Conventional Solutions to the Ecological Inference Problem......Page 44
 Ecological Regression......Page 45
 The Method of Bounds......Page 47
 King’s Solution to the Ecological Inference Problem......Page 48
 Further Reading......Page 49
 Glossary......Page 51
A Simple IS-LM Model......Page 52
 Adding Aggregate Supply to the Simple IS-LM Model......Page 53
 The Overlapping Generations Model......Page 54
 A Simple Utility-Maximizing Model......Page 55
 Adding Aggregate Supply to the Simple OLG Model......Page 56
 The Balanced Growth Path......Page 57
 Further Reading......Page 58
 Introduction to Agricultural Statistics and Data......Page 61
 Agricultural Production and Financial Statistics......Page 62
 Agricultural and Agribusiness Trade Data......Page 63
 Social Concerns......Page 64
 Summary Overview......Page 65
 Further Reading......Page 66
 Introduction......Page 67
 Kuder-Richardson 20......Page 68
 Direction of Relationships Between Items......Page 69
 Conclusion......Page 70
 Further Reading......Page 71
 Precursors (1920-1940): Anthropology and Psychoanalysis......Page 73
 Projective Tests, Modal Personality, and National Character......Page 74
 Issues......Page 75
 Cultural Psychology......Page 76
 Cross-Cultural Psychology......Page 77
 Further Reading......Page 78
 Introduction......Page 79
 History......Page 80
 Geography......Page 81
 Women’s and Gender Studies and Psychology......Page 82
 Sociology......Page 83
 Sociocultural Anthropology......Page 84
Statistical Inference......Page 86
Combined Approaches......Page 87
Further Reading......Page 88
 Life and Work......Page 91
 Theory of Science......Page 92
 The Place of Measurement in Science......Page 94
 Nature and Society......Page 95
 Conclusion......Page 97
 Further Reading......Page 98
 Glossary......Page 99
 Characteristics of Artificial Societies Models......Page 100
 Research Themes: Emergence......Page 101
 Critiques and Resources......Page 102
 Further Reading......Page 103
 Introduction......Page 105
 Attrition......Page 106
 Exposure Time......Page 107
 Conclusion......Page 108
 Further Reading......Page 109
 The Challenges......Page 111
 Coding Systems for Audiovisual Records......Page 112
 Sampling......Page 113
 Scoring......Page 114
 Infant-Mother Interaction......Page 115
 Methods and Procedures......Page 116
 Results and Discussion......Page 117
 Further Reading......Page 118
 Glossary......Page 119
 Conventional Wisdom and Conventional Practice......Page 120
 Integrated, Near-Integrated, and Fractionally Integrated Processes......Page 121
 From Practice to Theory: A Model of Macropartisanship......Page 124
 Rival Political Advisor......Page 125
 An Agenda for Future Research......Page 126
 Further Reading......Page 127
 Introduction......Page 129
 Types of Science: Natural Science, Social Science, and Human Science......Page 130
 The Case of Psychology: Basic Science, Applied Science, and Professionalization......Page 131
 Early Approaches to Applied Knowledge......Page 132
 The Naturalistic and Probabilistic Turns......Page 133
 The Language of Science and the Scientific World View......Page 134
 The Self in Transition......Page 135
 Further Reading......Page 136
 Genealogy......Page 137
 Thomas Bayes and Tunbridge Wells......Page 138
 Papers on Chance......Page 139
 Death and Burial......Page 140
 Further Reading......Page 141
 Proof of Bayes’s Theorem and Its Extension......Page 143
 Philosophical Foundation of Bayesian Statistics......Page 144
 Critique of Bayesian Paradigm and Responses......Page 145
 Specifying a Model with  a prior Distribution......Page 146
 Contemporary Approaches to Estimation......Page 147
 The Metropolis-Hastings Algorithm......Page 148
 Fine-Tuning Markov Chain Monte Carlo Algorithms......Page 149
 Posterior Predictive Distributions......Page 150
 Bayesian Model Averaging......Page 151
 Further Reading......Page 152
 History and Scope......Page 153
 Key Ideas and Theories......Page 154
 Major Early Works......Page 155
 Further Reading......Page 157
 Scope......Page 159
 Hypothetical Constructs......Page 160
 Independent Variables (Causes or Treatments)......Page 161
 Habituation......Page 162
 Pavlovian Conditioning......Page 163
 Operant Conditioning......Page 164
 Operant-Pavlovian Interactions......Page 165
 Further Reading......Page 166
 Biographical Notes......Page 167
 Critiques of Bentham......Page 168
 Felicity Calculus......Page 169
 Money as a Measure of Pleasure......Page 170
 Further Reading......Page 171
 The Role of Jakob Bernoulli in the Development of a Mathematical Probability Theory and Statistics......Page 173
 Early Work on Problems of Games of Chance and Mortality......Page 174
 Correspondence with Leibniz Concerning the Art of Conjecturing......Page 176
 The Ars Conjectandi......Page 177
 The Impact of the Ars Conjectandi......Page 178
 Further Reading......Page 179
 Bertillon and the History of Social Measurement: Primary Contributions......Page 181
 Arithmetic versus Physiological Averages......Page 182
 Mortality Differentials......Page 183
 Anthropology and Liberal Economy......Page 184
 The Promotion of Demography  as a Discipline......Page 185
 Bertillon and Quetelet......Page 186
 The Theory of Averages Revisited......Page 187
 Further Reading......Page 190
 Youth of Alfred Binet......Page 191
 A Father Becomes a Child Psychologist......Page 192
 Assessment of Individual Differences in Cognitive Functioning......Page 193
 Assessment of Intelligence in Groups of Children and Mentally Retarded Adults......Page 194
 Reception of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scales......Page 195
 Further Reading......Page 196
 Glossary......Page 197
 Development and Consequences of the Epidemiological Approach......Page 198
 Reactions to Biomedical Orthodoxy......Page 199
 Objective and Subjective States......Page 200
 Impairment, Disability, Handicap......Page 201
 Health-Related Quality of Life......Page 202
 Sense of Coherence......Page 203
 Survey Techniques......Page 204
 Service Delivery, Organization of Care, Organization of the Medical System......Page 205
 Coping with Disease and Treatment......Page 206
 Quality of the Dialogue between Medicine and Social Sciences......Page 207
 Further Reading......Page 208
 When and Why the Built Environment......Page 211
 Characteristics of Research......Page 212
 Occupants......Page 213
 Environments......Page 214
 Records and Archives......Page 215
 Further Reading......Page 216
 Glossary......Page 219
 Paradigms That Inform Business Research......Page 220
 Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies That Inform Business Research......Page 222
 Mixed Methods......Page 224
 Further Reading......Page 225
 Glossary......Page 227
 Mail Surveys (Questionnaires)......Page 228
 Telephone Surveys......Page 229
 Observation......Page 230
 Focus Groups......Page 231
 Longitudinal Studies......Page 232
 Action Research......Page 233
 Longitudinal Studies......Page 234
 Quantitative Methods of Data Analysis......Page 235
 Qualitative Methods of Data Analysis......Page 236
 Conclusion......Page 237
 Further Reading......Page 238
 The General Use of Campaign Finance Data......Page 239
 Limits on Contributions......Page 240
 Public Financing......Page 241
 Expenditure Data......Page 242
 Soft Money......Page 243
 Issue Advocacy......Page 244
 Further Reading......Page 245
 Introduction......Page 247
 Quasi-Experimentation......Page 248
 The Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix......Page 249
 The "Experimenting Society"......Page 250
 Conclusion......Page 251
 Further Reading......Page 252
 Introduction......Page 253
 Fieldwork......Page 254
 Ethnography and Theory......Page 255
 Conclusion......Page 256
 Further Reading......Page 257
 Introduction......Page 259
 Entropy-Based Relevance Analysis......Page 260
 Decision Trees......Page 261
 Artificial Neural Networks......Page 262
 An Application in the Social Sciences......Page 263
 Observations for Data Mining......Page 265
 Further Reading......Page 266
 A Model of Potential Outcomes......Page 267
 Randomized Experiments......Page 268
 Propensity Score Methods......Page 269
 Instrumental Variables......Page 270
 The Regression Discontinuity Design......Page 271
 Difference-in-Differences and Fixed Effects......Page 272
 See Also the Following Articles......Page 273
 Further Reading......Page 274
 Introduction......Page 275
 Errors and Uncertainty......Page 276
 Looking to the Future: Census-Taking in 2010 and Beyond......Page 281
 Further Reading......Page 282
 History of the Economic  Census-Retail Trade......Page 283
 Market Share......Page 285
 Locate Business-to-Business Markets......Page 286
 Change in Absolute Numbers and Percentages......Page 287
 Per Capita Sales, Sales per Household......Page 288
 Actual Versus Potential Sales......Page 289
 Further Reading......Page 290
 Evolution......Page 291
 American Community Survey......Page 292
 Reapportionment......Page 293
 Noncitizens......Page 294
 Legislative Redistricting for Equal Population Size......Page 295
 Equal Employment Opportunity......Page 296
 Economic Development and Marketing......Page 297
 Coverage......Page 298
 Further Reading......Page 299
 Background and Early Influences......Page 301
 Social Evolutionism to Statistics......Page 302
 Social Measurement......Page 304
 Social Theory and Social Practice......Page 306
 Evaluation and Legacy......Page 307
 Further Reading......Page 308
 Model for a Fixed Person......Page 309
 Classical Theory......Page 310
Internal Consistency......Page 311
Key Theorems on Reliability and Validity......Page 312
Strong True-Score Models......Page 313
Test Construction......Page 314
Further Reading......Page 315
 Introduction......Page 317
 Theory......Page 318
 Assessment......Page 319
 Treatment and Intervention......Page 321
 Further Reading......Page 322
 Relevant Types of Data......Page 325
 What Is the "Right" Number  of Clusters?......Page 326
 Selecting from a Large  Set of Variables......Page 327
 Further Reading......Page 328
 Introduction......Page 329
 Developing Coding Schemes......Page 330
 Create More, Rather than Fewer, Values......Page 331
 Codebooks......Page 332
 Values......Page 333
 Coding and Data Entry......Page 334
 Further Reading......Page 335
 Cognitive Maps and Cognitive Mapping......Page 337
 The Use of Cognitive Maps......Page 338
 Locating Places......Page 339
 Multidimensional Scaling......Page 340
 Accuracy......Page 341
 Distortion and Error......Page 342
 Self to Object and Object to Object Directions......Page 343
 Anchors......Page 344
 Completion Tasks......Page 345
 Idiosyncratic and Common Components of Cognitive Maps......Page 346
 Further Reading......Page 347
 Model Paradigms......Page 349
 Eyeblink Conditioning......Page 350
 Spatial Navigation......Page 351
 Reflective Sensors......Page 352
 Fear Conditioning......Page 353
 Extracellular Recordings......Page 354
 Intracellular Recordings......Page 355
 Further Reading......Page 356
 Before Cognitive Psychology......Page 359
 The Cognitive Revolution......Page 360
 Core Assumptions: The Functionalist Philosophy behind the Approach......Page 361
 Memory and Language......Page 362
 Attention and Performance......Page 363
 Sensation and Perception......Page 364
 Within Cognitive Science......Page 365
 Outward into the Environment......Page 366
 Further Reading......Page 367
 Background......Page 369
 Componential Analysis......Page 370
 Paradigmatic Structures......Page 371
 Marking......Page 372
 Semantic Extension......Page 373
"Cultural Models" as Models of Behavioral Patterns or Interpretation......Page 374
 Decision Theory-Models of Routine Decision Making......Page 375
 Free-Listing "Snapshots"......Page 376
 Hierarchical Clustering......Page 377
 Consensus Measures......Page 378
 Systematic Patterns of Recall Errors......Page 379
 Formal Computational Models......Page 380
 Further Reading......Page 381
 Theories of Commensuration......Page 383
 Commensuration and the Constitution of Social Things......Page 384
 See Also the Following Articles......Page 385
 Further Reading......Page 386
 Introduction......Page 387
 The Process of Communication......Page 388
 Intrapersonal Communication......Page 389
 Transindividual Approaches......Page 390
 Interpersonal Communication......Page 391
 Group Communication......Page 392
 Mass Communication......Page 394
 Media Analysis......Page 396
 The powerful effects phase......Page 397
 Further Reading......Page 398
 Classic Approaches......Page 399
 Contemporary Issues......Page 400
 Sampling on the Dependent Variable......Page 401
 Advances in Study Design......Page 402
 Number of Cases and Generalization......Page 403
 Contrast-Oriented Comparison......Page 404
 Further Reading......Page 405
 Complexity Science......Page 407
 Complexity Science and the Social World......Page 408
 Developing Simulation......Page 409
 Challenges for Measuring Social Complexity......Page 410
 Further Reading......Page 411
 Closed-Form Mathematics......Page 413
 Isomorphism......Page 414
 Examination of Empirical Data......Page 415
 Programming in a Single Language......Page 416
 Further Reading......Page 417
 Introduction......Page 419
 Why Maps with Computers?......Page 420
 A Brief History of Computer Cartography......Page 421
 Maps and Interactivity......Page 422
 The Functionalities of Computer-Based Mapping Systems......Page 423
 The Future of Computer Cartography: Animation, Multimedia, and the World Wide Web......Page 424
 Further Reading......Page 425
 CBT Systems and Functions......Page 427
 Test Administration and Delivery......Page 428
 Security......Page 429
 Preassembled, Parallel, Computerized Fixed Tests......Page 430
 Test Adaptation and Measurement Efficiency......Page 431
 Computerized Mastery Tests......Page 432
 Computer-Adaptive Multistage Testing Panels......Page 433
 Further Reading......Page 434
 Computerized Adaptive Testing Response Models......Page 437
 Test Score Precision and Efficient Item Selection......Page 438
 Bayesian Approach......Page 439
 Item Choice Early in the Adaptive Sequence......Page 440
 Test Compromise Safeguards......Page 441
 Content Balancing......Page 442
 Item-Pool Development......Page 443
 Trends in Computerized Adaptive Testing......Page 444
 Further Reading......Page 446
 Why Link Data across Databases?......Page 447
 Multiple Databases, No Common Identifier......Page 448
 Large Search Space, Small Target Subset......Page 449
 Fellegi-Sunter theory......Page 450
 What Are Some Pitfalls of Computerized Record Linkage?......Page 451
 Statistical Matching Terminology......Page 452
 Mathematical Relationships......Page 453
 Further Reading......Page 454
 Condorcet (1743-1794): A Biographical Sketch......Page 457
 Weights, Measures, and the Mint......Page 458
 Application of Probability Theory to Natural and Social Sciences......Page 459
 Condorcet and the Actual Elections......Page 460
 A "New Science"......Page 461
 Further Reading......Page 462
Introduction......Page 463
Standard Error of the Mean......Page 464
Confidence Interval for Mean with a Small Sample......Page 465
Variation of Confidence Intervals through Repeated Sampling......Page 466
Calculating Confidence Intervals for Linear Regression......Page 467
Presentation of Confidence Intervals in Social Science Research......Page 468
Further Reading......Page 470
 Introduction and Themes......Page 471
 What Is Meant by Confidentiality and Disclosure?......Page 472
 Restricted Access versus Restricted Data......Page 473
 Methodology for Disclosure Limitation......Page 474
 Conclusions and Further Issues......Page 476
 Further Reading......Page 477
 Historical Development......Page 479
 Real-World Historical Development......Page 480
 Classical Economics......Page 481
 Neoclassical Economics......Page 482
 Saving in Modern Economics......Page 483
 Macroeconomic Factors......Page 484
 Beyond Modern Economics......Page 485
 Sources, Modes, and Problems of Data Collection......Page 486
 Role of the Nonmonetary Economy......Page 487
 Further Reading......Page 488
 Glossary......Page 489
 Manual Content Analysis......Page 490
 Automated Content Analysis......Page 491
 The Future of Content Analysis......Page 492
 Further Reading......Page 493
 Why Study Television Content?......Page 495
 Conceptualization......Page 496
 Sampling......Page 497
 Validity: Categories and Indicators......Page 498
 Balancing Validity and Reliability......Page 499
 Further Reading......Page 500
 Introduction......Page 503
 Selection Criteria......Page 504
 Factorial Validity Index......Page 505
 Further Reading......Page 506
 Introduction and Historical Remarks on Contingency Table Analysis......Page 507
 Two-Way Tables......Page 508
 Sampling Models and Basic Log-Linear Model Theory......Page 509
 Higher Way Tables......Page 511
 Association Models for Ordinal Variables......Page 512
 New Theory and Applications for the Analysis of Categorical Data......Page 513
 Further Reading......Page 514
 Why Study Conversation?......Page 515
 Discovery, Site Selection, and Recording......Page 516
 Transcription......Page 517
 Analyzing Talk: Analytical Techniques......Page 518
 Generic Devices in Conversation......Page 519
 Limitations......Page 520
 Further Reading......Page 521
 Introduction......Page 523
 Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities......Page 524
 Rand I......Page 525
 Replications of the Rand Surveys......Page 526
 Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Data......Page 527
 I-ADAM......Page 528
 Further Reading......Page 529
 Introduction......Page 531
 The Correlation Coefficient......Page 532
 Interpretation of Pearson’s r......Page 533
 Point-Biserial Coefficient......Page 534
 Kendall’s t......Page 535
 Further Reading......Page 536
 Origins of Names and Classification of Data......Page 539
 Dominance Data......Page 540
 Rank-Order Data: An Example of Dominance Data......Page 541
 Further Reading......Page 544
 Description of the Process......Page 545
 Analysis of a 5-Year Project......Page 546
 Real Benefits and Costs versus Transfers......Page 547
 Valuing the Benefits......Page 548
 Other Cost Issues......Page 549
 Comparison with Cost-Effectiveness Analysis......Page 551
 Further Reading......Page 552
 Overview of Counties......Page 553
 Overview of Cities......Page 554
 Core-Based Statistical Area System......Page 555
 The U.S. Census Bureau......Page 556
 Internet Sources......Page 557
 Further Reading......Page 558
 European Countries......Page 559
 The United States......Page 560
 Interpol Data......Page 561
 Problems in Using International Crime Data......Page 562
 The Uses of International Crime Data......Page 563
 Further Reading......Page 564
 Measuring Crime, Delinquency, and Victimization......Page 565
 Victimization......Page 566
 Measuring the Criminal Justice System......Page 567
 Experimental Research in Criminal Justice......Page 568
 Qualitative Methods to Study Crime and the Criminal Justice System......Page 569
 Examples of Ethnographic Research on Crime and Criminal Justice......Page 570
 Further Reading......Page 571
 Introduction: The Move to Performance Measurement......Page 573
 Behavioral and Organizational Implications of Performance Measurement......Page 574
 Unintended Consequences......Page 575
 System Effects: Performance Measures--A Life of Their Own?......Page 576
 Performance Measures--Epistemological and Ontological Foundations......Page 577
 Performance Measures: A Technical or Political Tool?......Page 578
 Further Reading......Page 579
 Cultural Systems......Page 581
 Types of Cultural Systems......Page 582
 Limitations and Cautions......Page 584
 Conclusion......Page 585
 Further Reading......Page 586
 Introduction......Page 587
 Estimating Cultural Competence......Page 588
 Sample Size......Page 590
 Related Analyses......Page 591
 Summary......Page 592
 Further Reading......Page 593
 Census Availability......Page 595
 Limitations of Census Data Analysis......Page 596
 The Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys......Page 597
 The World Health Surveys......Page 598
 Cross-Population Comparability......Page 599
 Further Reading......Page 600
 Introduction......Page 601
 The Social Survey......Page 602
 Summary of Primary Data......Page 603
 Retrieving Secondary Data......Page 604
 Evaluating the Methodological Quality of Secondary Data......Page 605
 Further Reading......Page 606
 The Issue of Access......Page 609
 Levels of Description......Page 610
 Implications for Discovery Tools......Page 611
 Implications for Data Distribution Tools......Page 612
 Further Reading......Page 614
 Glossary......Page 617
 Differences between DEA and Other Efficiency Measurement Models......Page 618
 Use of DEA......Page 619
 Fundamentals of DEA......Page 620
 Warwick DEA Software......Page 621
 DEAP Software......Page 622
 Further Reading......Page 623
 Old versus New Definitions......Page 625
 Challenges......Page 626
 Supervised Learning: Binary Response......Page 627
 Neural Networks......Page 628
 Tree-Structured Classifiers......Page 629
 Support Vector Machines......Page 630
 Hierarchical......Page 631
 Further Reading......Page 632
 Logic and Validity......Page 633
 Deduction......Page 634
 Induction......Page 635
 Further Reading......Page 637
 Glossary......Page 639
 A Potted Biography......Page 640
 An Overview of Deming’s Work......Page 641
 Knowledge of Systems......Page 642
 Plan, Do, Study, Act......Page 643
 Further Reading......Page 644
 Introduction......Page 645
 Robert A. Dahl: Polyarchy and Democracy......Page 646
 Consensual and Majoritarian Principles......Page 647
 How Indicators and Measures of Democracy Are Weighed......Page 648
 Democratic Political Culture......Page 649
 A Direction for Future Research......Page 650
 Further Reading......Page 651
 Introduction......Page 653
 Basic Descriptors of Population Growth......Page 654
 Age-Adjusted Death Rates......Page 655
 Life Tables......Page 656
 Measuring Fertility......Page 658
 Measuring Migration......Page 661
 Age Structure......Page 662
 Average Age and Dependency Ratio......Page 663
 Further Reading......Page 665
 Descriptive Statistics......Page 667
 Levels of Measurement......Page 668
 Measures of Central Tendency......Page 669
 Measures of Variability Based on Position......Page 670
 Other Univariate Descriptive Statistics......Page 671
 Sampling Theory......Page 672
 Cautions and Conclusions......Page 675
 Further Reading......Page 676
 Cognate Disciplines......Page 677
 DEM Structures......Page 678
 Data Refinement......Page 679
 Spatial Measures......Page 680
 Aggregation......Page 681
 Modeling Landforms......Page 682
 Further Reading......Page 683
 Introduction......Page 685
 Why: Motives for Discrimination......Page 686
 Admissible Evidence......Page 687
 General Approach for Measuring Discrimination......Page 688
 Hiring......Page 689
 Where: Employment Arena 2, Within-Job Wage Discrimination......Page 690
 Where: Employment Arena 3, Valuative Discrimination......Page 691
 Further Reading......Page 692
 What Is Domestic Violence?......Page 693
 How Do We Measure Domestic Violence?......Page 694
 Conflict Tactics Scales......Page 695
 Severity of Violence Against Women Scales......Page 696
 Measure of Wife Abuse......Page 697
 Further Reading......Page 698
 Introduction......Page 699
 Contributions to Data Collection, Data Analysis, and Methods of Analysis......Page 700
 Theoretical Foundation......Page 701
 The Unidimensional Rasch Model as a Log-Linear Model......Page 702
 Multidimensional Rasch Models......Page 703
 Duncan’s Critique of Contemporary Sociology......Page 704
 Further Reading......Page 705
 Background and Early Influences......Page 707
 Early Work and Intellectual Context......Page 708
 Collective Consciousness......Page 709
 Suicide......Page 710
 Durkheim’s Later Work......Page 711
 Further Reading......Page 712
 Populations in Motion......Page 713
 Migration Definition and Measurement......Page 714
 Data Sources and Limitations......Page 715
 Cohort Projection Models......Page 716
 Econometric Methods......Page 718
 Longitudinal (Panel) Analysis......Page 720
 Summary: Capabilities and Limitations of Dynamic Models......Page 721
 Further Reading......Page 722
 Origins of the Ecological Fallacy......Page 723
 Understanding the Mathematical Structure of the Ecological Fallacy......Page 724
 Graphical Illustration of the Problem with Ecological Correlations......Page 725
 How Aggregation Produces Bias......Page 726
 Problems Related to Group-Level Effects......Page 727
 Solutions to the Ecological Inference Problem?......Page 728
 Further Reading......Page 729
 Introduction......Page 731
 Theory......Page 732
 Systems......Page 734
 Variables......Page 735
 Mental vs. Material Variables......Page 737
 Decision Making......Page 738
 Further Reading......Page 740
 Why Economic Development and Growth are Important......Page 741
 Income Distribution......Page 742
 National Income versus Economic Income......Page 743
 Education and Income Inequality......Page 745
 The Calculation of the HDI......Page 746
 The HDI as a Measure of Development......Page 747
 Further Reading......Page 748
 Introduction......Page 749
 Methodology of Economic Prediction......Page 751
 Other Measurement Aspects of the Economic Prediction Process......Page 754
 Business Cycle Measurement: An Exception?......Page 755
 Further Reading......Page 757
 Introduction......Page 759
 Invariance Problem......Page 760
 Error Problem......Page 761
 Predictive Performance......Page 762
 Hendry’s General-to-Specific Modeling Strategy......Page 763
 Method of Simulated Moments......Page 764
 Moving Weighted Average Method......Page 765
 Kalman Filter......Page 766
 Index Numbers......Page 767
 Further Reading......Page 768
 Genealogy......Page 769
 Economics......Page 770
 Probability and Statistics......Page 771
 Further Reading......Page 772
 Introduction......Page 773
 Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Affective Tests or Measures......Page 774
 Standardized and Unstandardized Tests......Page 775
 Diagnosis......Page 776
 Licensure, Certification, and Qualification......Page 777
 Delivery Modes Used for Educational Tests......Page 778
 Further Reading......Page 779
 Overview of the Elaboration Model......Page 781
 Types of Test Factors......Page 782
 Revised Multivariate Elaboration Model......Page 783
 Spuriousness......Page 784
 Intervening Variables......Page 785
 Elaboration: Specification......Page 786
 Further Reading......Page 787
 Introduction......Page 789
 Types of Election Polls......Page 790
 Complexities of Election Polls......Page 792
 Poll Results and Effects/Democratic Implications......Page 793
 Further Reading......Page 794
 Margin for Error-What Does It Mean?......Page 795
 Randomness, Survey Sampling, and Statistical Theory......Page 796
 Calculating the Margin for Error......Page 797
 The 2000 Presidential Election Polls......Page 798
 Further Reading......Page 799
 Epidemiology: An Overview......Page 801
 Social Inequality and Health......Page 803
 Implications......Page 804
 Buffering Model of Stress and Social Support......Page 805
 Measuring Stressors and Supports......Page 806
 Cultural Dimensions of Population Health......Page 808
 Further Reading......Page 810
 Equivalence and Bias: A General Framework......Page 811
 Psychometric Modeling......Page 812
 Functional Equivalence......Page 813
 Structural Equivalence......Page 814
Cultural Specificity of the Theoretical Variable......Page 815
Method Bias......Page 816
Item Bias......Page 817
Nomological Network......Page 818
Exploratory Factor Analysis......Page 819
Two-Parameter Logistic Model......Page 820
Further Reading......Page 821
 Glossary......Page 823
 Honesty in Research......Page 824
 Different Issues Raised by Qualitative and Quantitative Research......Page 825
 Consent......Page 826
 Privacy and Confidentiality......Page 827
 Collaborative Issues......Page 828
 Choice of Research Topics......Page 829
 Publication Issues......Page 830
 External Ethical Guidelines and Institutional Setting......Page 831
 Further Reading......Page 832
 Definition of Ethnocentrism......Page 835
 A Developmental Study of Children......Page 836
 An Anthropological Study in East Africa......Page 837
 Measures at the Group Level of Analysis......Page 838
 Further Reading......Page 839
 Glossary......Page 841
 Early Sociologists......Page 842
 Advances in Ethnographic Methodology......Page 843
 The "Second" Chicago School......Page 844
 Symbolic Interactionism......Page 845
 Analytic Induction and Grounded Theory Approach......Page 846
 Current Status; Moving Beyond the Chicago School......Page 847
 Postmodern Ethnography and the "Crisis of Representation"......Page 848
 Survey Ethnography......Page 849
 Conclusion......Page 850
 Further Reading......Page 851
 Glossary......Page 853
 Variety of Eugenic Views......Page 854
 Major Leadership......Page 855
 Funding Support for Eugenics......Page 856
 Defining Traits......Page 857
 The Family Pedigree Method......Page 858
 Eugenics and Immigration Restriction in the United States......Page 860
 Criticism in the United States and Great Britain......Page 861
 Eugenics as a "Murderous Science"  (1940-1945)......Page 862
 The Soviet Union......Page 863
 Further Reading......Page 864
 Empirical Applications......Page 867
 Data......Page 868
 Hazard Rate......Page 869
 Survival Probability......Page 870
 Hazard Rate......Page 871
 Modeling the Mean......Page 872
 Models for Time Dependence......Page 873
 Nonproportional Models of Rates......Page 874
 Models of the Mean: Accelerated Failure Time Models......Page 875
 Maximum-Likelihood Estimation......Page 876
 Further Reading......Page 877
 Observer Effects......Page 879
 Biosocial Effects......Page 880
 Expectancy Effects......Page 881
 Generality......Page 882
 Further Reading......Page 883
 Introduction......Page 885
 Comparing Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies......Page 886
 Barriers to Experimentation in Crime and Justice......Page 887
 Structure of a Typical Criminological Experiment......Page 888
 A Brief History of Criminological Experiments......Page 889
 Further Reading......Page 891
 Introduction......Page 893
 Natural Science Experiments and Their Implications......Page 894
 Milgram’s Studies of Obedience to Authority......Page 895
 Newton’s Experimental Method......Page 896
 Methods of J. S. Mill......Page 897
 Mackie’s INUS Conditions......Page 898
 Functions of Experiments......Page 899
 Controlled Laboratory Experiments and Isolation......Page 900
 Falsification and Null Hypotheses......Page 901
 Naturalistic Critique......Page 902
 Constructivist Critique......Page 903
 Experimental Methodology and Ramification Extinction......Page 904
 Satisfying the Superego versus Supporting Cognitive Management......Page 905
 Further Reading......Page 906
 Why Experiments? Advantages of Experimentation......Page 909
 Between- and Within-Subjects Designs......Page 911
 Interaction Effects......Page 912
 Subjectivity in Design......Page 913
 Pseudo-Experimental Designs......Page 914
 Field Experiments......Page 915
 Conclusion......Page 916
 Further Reading......Page 917
 Survey of Psychological Experiments......Page 919
 Variables......Page 920
 Manipulation......Page 921
 Elimination or Inclusion......Page 922
 Experimental Designs......Page 923
 Pretest/Posttest Control Group Design......Page 924
 Longitudinal Design......Page 925
 Further Reading......Page 926
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals......Page 927
 The Adversarial Context......Page 928
 Polls and Surveys......Page 929
 Ecological Inference......Page 930
 The Defendants’ Response......Page 931
 Conclusion......Page 932
 Further Reading......Page 933
 Glossary......Page 935
 Distinguishing Explore, Explain, and Design......Page 936
 Many Exploratory Methods Exist and Often Lead to Explanation......Page 937
 Exploratory Research Leads Also to Design Research......Page 938
 What Is Design?......Page 939
 Exploratory Research Leads to Design Research......Page 940
 Design Research Leads to Explorational Research......Page 941
 Some History......Page 942
 Design Experiments and Experimental Design......Page 943
 Conclusion......Page 945
 Further Reading......Page 946
 Introduction: Life and Career......Page 947
 The Structure of Personality......Page 948
 Clinical Psychology and Behavior Therapy......Page 949
 Intelligence......Page 950
 Physical Disease and Drug Use......Page 951
 The Outsider as Insider......Page 952
 Further Reading......Page 953