Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 2
Editors in chief......Page 3
Title page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Contributors......Page 22
Preface......Page 42
Acknowledgments......Page 44
Guide to the Reader......Page 46
Formation process......Page 48
Acidity of glacier ice......Page 50
Definition......Page 51
A brief history of photogrammetry......Page 52
Geometric principles for monitoring glaciers by photogrammetry......Page 53
Analogue and digital cameras for glacier monitoring......Page 54
Essential concepts and applications in glacier monitoring......Page 56
Study area......Page 59
Methods......Page 60
Cross-references......Page 62
Introduction......Page 63
Distribution and recent behavior of Alaska´s glaciers......Page 64
Summary......Page 68
Bibliography......Page 69
Definition of surface albedo......Page 70
Underlying principles......Page 71
Calibrations......Page 74
Snow......Page 75
Additional uncertainties......Page 79
Summary......Page 80
Bibliography......Page 81
Definition and introduction: the Alps and alpine climates......Page 82
Behavior of alpine glaciers......Page 83
Bibliography......Page 84
Definition......Page 85
Anabatic winds: in relation with snow/glacier basin......Page 86
Introduction......Page 87
Tropical Andean glacier mass and energy balance......Page 88
Extratropical Andean glaciers......Page 89
Cross-references......Page 90
How anisotropy influences ice flow......Page 91
Introduction......Page 92
Antarctic ice sheet......Page 93
Antarctic ice shelf......Page 94
Antarctic sea ice......Page 95
Antarctic ice cores and climate change......Page 96
Outlook......Page 99
Bibliography......Page 100
Evidence that precludes the Laurentide Ice Sheet from the region......Page 101
Summary: Evolution of the Appalachian Glacier Complex during the last glaciation (Marine Isotope Stages 4-2; 75-12 ka BP)......Page 103
Bibliography......Page 104
Definition......Page 105
System components......Page 106
Bibliography......Page 107
Short history of artificial snow......Page 108
Production of artificial snow......Page 109
Characteristics of artificial snow......Page 110
Hydrological......Page 111
Ecological......Page 112
Definition......Page 113
Thermal interaction between the atmosphere and snow/ice......Page 114
Turbulent surface fluxes......Page 115
Boreal forest......Page 116
Orographic effects of ice/snow slopes on the atmospheric dynamics......Page 117
Frictional effects of snow/ice surfaces on the atmosphere......Page 118
Effects of wind on sea ice......Page 119
Conclusions......Page 120
Cross-references......Page 121
Bibliography......Page 122
Historical background......Page 123
Spectral properties and available sensors......Page 124
Applied methods for glacier mapping......Page 125
Post-processing......Page 127
Conclusions......Page 128
Bibliography......Page 129
Cross-references......Page 130
Essential concepts......Page 132
P......Page 222
Year-Round Ablation Pattern......Page 830
Effects of rock avalanches on glacier movement and supraglacial debris......Page 133
Short-term controls on basal sediment evacuation......Page 134
Bibliography......Page 336
Mass transfer, fluid flow, and permeability......Page 135
Bibliography......Page 948
Cross-references......Page 136
Importance of RT modeling......Page 950
Firn morphology and microstructure......Page 137
Snowmelt and groundwater flow or base flow......Page 138
Summary......Page 139
Drift ice dynamics......Page 822
Orographic Precipitation......Page 140
Synonyms......Page 141
Change in air temperature and precipitation......Page 343
Landforms of Glacial Transportation......Page 142
Bibliography......Page 570
Bibliography......Page 144
Definition......Page 145
Thaw Weakening......Page 1202
Sea ice biological and chemical interactions......Page 146
Summary......Page 148
Definition......Page 628
Synonyms......Page 149
Brash Ice......Page 150
Glacial Grooves......Page 249
Estimation of degree-day sums......Page 244
Vein Ice......Page 152
Canadian Rockies and Coast Mountains of Canada......Page 153
Spectral feature extraction......Page 932
Lake Ice......Page 733
Links between climate and glaciers......Page 155
Historical glacier changes and links to climate......Page 156
Conclusion......Page 1010
Würm ice age......Page 157
Definition......Page 158
Definition......Page 159
Introduction......Page 160
Significant processes and developments......Page 162
Ice sheets......Page 1017
Breaching of thermokarst and supraglacial lakes......Page 812
Types of models......Page 344
Pandemonium Creek......Page 167
Examples from the European Alps......Page 168
Definition......Page 169
Bualtar and Aling glaciers, central Karakoram......Page 170
Bibliography......Page 171
Cross-references......Page 173
Puncak Jaya Glaciers......Page 174
Introduction......Page 175
Discharge regimes......Page 176
Chemical characteristics......Page 177
Snow grain size retrieval......Page 178
Bibliography......Page 179
Estimation of Glacier Volume and Volume Change by Scaling Methods......Page 180
Paraglacial sediment yield and sediment cycle......Page 865
Organic species......Page 181
Introduction......Page 182
Bibliography......Page 184
The impact of the physical nature of snow and ice on chemistry......Page 185
Definition......Page 186
Currents induced by heat released from the sediments......Page 187
What causes the changes in glacier elevation?......Page 1216
Interception of snow......Page 188
Definition......Page 189
Bibliography......Page 1056
A molder of landscapes......Page 190
Definition......Page 191
Glaciations and climate change of the last 2.5 million years......Page 192
Glaciations and climate change of past 21,000 years......Page 193
Mass balance......Page 194
Impact of freezing soil on landscape......Page 196
Summary......Page 197
Cross-references......Page 199
Synonyms......Page 200
Climate variability and change at high elevation......Page 201
Bibliography......Page 202
Cross-references......Page 203
Till characteristics and classifications......Page 1228
Basal thermal regime......Page 204
Glacier margin morphology......Page 205
Sliding at subfreezing temperatures......Page 206
Lobe......Page 208
Creep of ice-supersaturated permafrost......Page 210
Synonyms......Page 687
Definition......Page 211
Runoff generation from direct precipitation......Page 212
Orientation......Page 213
Bottom crevasses......Page 214
Measuring relevant data......Page 215
Dynamics of cryoconite holes......Page 216
Elevation change and mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet......Page 683
Bibliography......Page 217
Definition......Page 218
Bibliography......Page 219
Bibliography......Page 220
Relative-dating techniques......Page 223
Lichenometry......Page 224
Bibliography......Page 368
Climate change, human activities, and related shifts of hazard zones......Page 226
Cosmogenic-exposure dating......Page 228
Assessing accumulation and ablation......Page 734
Bibliography......Page 231
Paleo-ice streams and past ice sheet dynamics......Page 233
Definition......Page 1192
Fundamentals......Page 841
Bibliography......Page 234
Debris thickness and ice melt rate under debris layers......Page 235
Bibliography......Page 772
Band ratios used to discriminate snow and clouds......Page 826
Satellite utilization......Page 236
Bibliography......Page 237
Cross-references......Page 239
Meteorological effects on rain-induced snowmelt......Page 962
Introduction......Page 319
Sea level rise......Page 240
Discussion of datings......Page 747
Deglaciation information......Page 241
Link with the atmosphere and ocean......Page 242
Snowpack characteristics and rain-induced snowmelt......Page 243
Bibliography......Page 245
Depletion of Snow Cover......Page 247
Ice fall and ice avalanches......Page 248
Bibliography......Page 579
Microwave sensors......Page 251
Clinometry (shape from shading)......Page 253
Stereoscopy......Page 254
Interferometry......Page 255
Altimetry......Page 257
Origin......Page 258
Bibliography......Page 259
Introduction......Page 260
Storm hydrographs......Page 581
Remote sensing for snow-cover mapping......Page 261
Digital image information extraction techniques for snow-cover mapping......Page 262
Change detection-based method......Page 263
Debris transfer between high and intermediate levels......Page 1040
Digital image classification......Page 264
Summary......Page 276
Bibliography......Page 277
Definition......Page 279
Form and features......Page 643
Snowmelt discharge and streamflow......Page 281
Glacier-melt discharge and streamflow......Page 282
Definition......Page 283
Runoff cycle evolution in glacierized basins......Page 284
Error considerations......Page 761
Summary......Page 285
Frozen Soil Hydrology......Page 286
Introduction......Page 428
Dry and wet snow line/zone......Page 287
Transformations of Snow at the Earth´s Surface and its Climatic and Environmental Consequences......Page 288
Synonyms......Page 442
Hydrological flow parameters derived from tracer tests......Page 289
Bibliography......Page 1232
Summary......Page 291
Microtexture recognition......Page 1068
Synonyms......Page 292
Introduction......Page 670
Introduction......Page 293
Historical perspective......Page 294
The three major components of ice flow......Page 295
Stress-strain relationship: Glen´s Flow Law......Page 296
0.9-0.1ka events......Page 297
Dynamic adjustments to variations in driving forces......Page 298
Response time......Page 299
Summary......Page 300
Bibliography......Page 301
Cross-references......Page 303
Englacial Conduit......Page 304
Radio-echo sounding data......Page 730
Urban Snow......Page 770
Crevasse fills......Page 305
Bibliography......Page 308
Epiglacial forms related to glacier motion......Page 309
Introduction......Page 1271
Meltwater flow and related epiglacial forms......Page 311
Past glaciations......Page 312
Bibliography......Page 314
Bibliography......Page 315
Wind influencing the ELA......Page 316
Approaches of calculating palaeo ELAs......Page 318
Proglacial sites......Page 320
ELA reconstructions - learning from the past......Page 321
Summary......Page 322
Bibliography......Page 323
Rating Curve......Page 324
Deriving volume-area scaling......Page 325
Limitations of volume scaling......Page 326
Cross-references......Page 327
Meltwater Channels......Page 328
Time variability of recession......Page 970
The ice cover as a barrier between water and atmosphere......Page 329
Introduction......Page 639
Continental macrotidal estuaries......Page 330
The Saint Lawrence estuary......Page 331
Northern European estuaries......Page 332
Bibliography......Page 333
Introduction......Page 1258
Natural aerosols......Page 361
Introduction......Page 337
Metamorphism and the development of firn......Page 338
Air movement in firn......Page 339
Definition......Page 340
Cross-references......Page 341
Radioactive decay......Page 623
Glacier outlines (debris-covered and non-debris covered)......Page 832
Apron entrainment......Page 345
Near-vertical ice margins......Page 723
Introduction......Page 813
Conclusions......Page 346
Bibliography......Page 347
Paraglacial Landscape Transformations......Page 744
Summary......Page 348
Definition......Page 349
Bathymetric forms resulting from glacial processes......Page 634
Sediment Yield......Page 350
Physical and glaciological character......Page 641
Frost heave......Page 351
Bibliography......Page 352
Patterned ground......Page 353
Soil water-ice characteristics and frost heave......Page 354
Hydraulic conductivity of frozen soil......Page 355
Frost features and engineering......Page 356
Summary......Page 357
Frozen Toe (Outer Zone of Glacier Snout)......Page 358
Definition and introduction......Page 360
Failure or overtopping of ice dams......Page 362
Glaciers in the Alps......Page 363
Glaciers melting......Page 365
Geocryology......Page 371
Data acquisition and distribution......Page 372
Clarification......Page 567
Introduction......Page 374
Glacial drainage characteristics......Page 375
Cross-references......Page 376
Regional variability in sea level trends......Page 377
Definition......Page 961
Classification and origins of erosional landscapes under ice sheets......Page 741
Cross-references......Page 378
Erosion processes......Page 379
Introduction......Page 1022
Glaciated terrain classification using full polarimetric SAR data......Page 939
Abrasion......Page 381
Erosion by glacial meltwater......Page 383
The role of basal thermal regime......Page 384
The role of ice flow patterns......Page 385
Bibliography......Page 387
Synopsis of the extent of the inland-ice in Tibet since the earliest Last Glacial Period (LGP)......Page 388
Methods review......Page 1027
Glacial geomorphology......Page 389
Glacial climate and response......Page 390
Glacier taxonomy......Page 391
Fine-scale features......Page 392
Paraglacial processes......Page 394
Landscape-scale features......Page 397
Geochronology......Page 402
Bibliography......Page 403
Bibliography......Page 405
Glacial/Interglacial Cycles......Page 406
Bibliography......Page 750
General trends......Page 407
Empirical investigation of causal mechanisms......Page 408
History......Page 409
Erosion of frozen river banks, lake shores, and sea coasts......Page 816
Physics-resolving models......Page 410
Summary......Page 411
Introduction and background......Page 413
Model details......Page 415
Results......Page 416
Discussion and conclusions......Page 417
A brief history of concepts about the LIS......Page 755
Supporting evidence......Page 419
Important processes......Page 420
Distribution of snow......Page 422
Glacier......Page 423
Summary......Page 424
Four important things......Page 425
Seasonal and diurnal variations......Page 426
Changes in ice streams......Page 427
Worldwide distribution of glacier lakes prone to lake outbursts......Page 429
Quaternary glacier-dammed lakes (megafloods)......Page 430
Twentieth century......Page 431
Trigger mechanisms for dam failures of glacier-dammed lakes......Page 436
Palsa......Page 893
Development of moraine-dammed lakes......Page 438
Trigger mechanisms for lake outbursts of moraine-dammed lakes......Page 440
Hazard potential by glacier lake outbursts......Page 441
Ice-core formation......Page 663
Background and significance......Page 446
Integrative, process-oriented mass balance determination......Page 447
Regional observations and monitoring of large glacier ensembles......Page 450
Hydrology and climate warming......Page 992
Bibliography......Page 453
Historical background......Page 455
Hysteresis......Page 601
Factors influencing permafrost-climate relationships......Page 899
The force balance......Page 456
The mass balance......Page 458
Modeling ice sheets......Page 459
Holistic ice sheet modeling......Page 460
Glacier Pothole......Page 461
Bibliography......Page 1242
Synonyms......Page 462
Transformations of snow at the Earth´s surface......Page 463
Individual surge characteristics......Page 464
Variegated Glacier 1982-1983 surge......Page 466
Surface gradient and geometry......Page 467
Surface features of surge-type glaciers......Page 468
Proglacial features of surge-type glaciers......Page 469
Why do glaciers surge?......Page 470
Hydrological instability......Page 471
Svalbard-type surges: thermally regulated soft bed deformation......Page 472
Summary......Page 473
Bibliography......Page 474
Glacier System......Page 475
Definition and introduction......Page 476
Mass balance considerations......Page 478
Glacier thermal regimes......Page 479
Concluding remarks: a climatic and/or glacier anomaly?......Page 481
Bibliography......Page 482
Glacioeustasy......Page 483
Glaciogenic Deposits......Page 484
Theory and historical perspective......Page 485
Snow Microstructure......Page 486
The scope of glaciology......Page 487
Snow crystal morphology diagram......Page 914
Current issues in glaciology......Page 488
Bibliography......Page 489
Bibliography......Page 490
Introduction......Page 491
Glaciotectonic landforms......Page 493
Concealed glaciotectonic structures......Page 496
Distribution of glaciotectonics......Page 498
Model for Glaciotectonism......Page 500
Sea ice......Page 505
Drift patterns......Page 506
Ice Sheets......Page 507
Definition......Page 508
Snowcover......Page 509
Antarctic sea ice......Page 510
Ice sheets and ice shelves......Page 511
Conclusion......Page 513
Bibliography......Page 514
Observational evidence of change......Page 515
Bibliography......Page 517
Background......Page 518
Mass balance......Page 519
Bibliography......Page 520
Introduction......Page 521
Grace......Page 522
Cross-references......Page 523
Gravity Flow (Mass Flow)......Page 524
Introduction......Page 525
Northeast Greenland......Page 526
East Greenland......Page 527
Surge-type glaciers......Page 528
Glacier hydrology and hydrochemistry......Page 529
Bibliography......Page 530
Introduction......Page 531
Ice sheet mass balance......Page 532
Atmospheric or oceanic forcing?......Page 533
Climate change......Page 534
Bibliography......Page 535
Ground Ice......Page 536
Ground penetrating radar......Page 537
Electromagnetic radiation pattern......Page 538
GPR velocity and the dielectric permittivity......Page 539
Monostatic versus bistatic GPR systems and survey design......Page 541
WARR variants......Page 542
Directionality and anisotropy......Page 543
Diffractions......Page 544
Frequency versus resolution......Page 545
Bibliography......Page 547
Cross-references......Page 550
Salinity......Page 552
Structures and physical properties of ice Ih......Page 604
Synonyms......Page 930
Snow models......Page 1261
Definition......Page 554
Introduction......Page 555
Bibliography......Page 556
Introduction......Page 850
Introduction......Page 557
Basal surfaces......Page 561
Radiation transfer......Page 1235
Data quality......Page 617
Nepal Himalaya......Page 563
Bibliography......Page 825
High Asia......Page 975
Bibliography......Page 566
Definition......Page 740
Recent state of Himalayan glaciers......Page 568
Evolution of Himalayan glaciers to 2035......Page 569
Western Hindu Kush......Page 571
Summary......Page 572
7.3-5.9ka events......Page 573
1.9-0.9ka events......Page 574
Bibliography......Page 575
Horizontal Component of Ablation......Page 576
Patagonia......Page 577
Elemental ratios......Page 578
Bibliography......Page 580
Flood hydrographs......Page 582
Hydrograph separation......Page 583
Bibliography......Page 584
The LIS and Wisconsinian glaciation......Page 585
Deposits of sediment gravity flows......Page 1053
Bibliography......Page 587
Season to season variations in hydrological response......Page 588
Flooding......Page 589
Bibliography......Page 590
Bibliography......Page 591
Bibliography......Page 592
Permacrete......Page 593
Asia......Page 594
North America......Page 595
Bibliography......Page 597
Glacier hypsometry......Page 598
Permafrost and asteroids......Page 896
Examples of glacier hypsometric curves......Page 599
Bibliography......Page 602
Ices under the nonequilibrium conditions......Page 605
Bibliography......Page 606
Introduction......Page 607
The Cold Ages in the non-glaciated areas of the earth......Page 609
The melting level......Page 610
Sea level budget for the recent years/decades......Page 612
Degree-day modelling......Page 613
Ocean sediment data......Page 615
Glacier elevation changes......Page 835
Other data sources......Page 616
Extraterrestrial interactions......Page 618
Astronomical theory......Page 619
Ground moraine......Page 796
Summary......Page 621
Synonyms......Page 960
Empirical induction......Page 624
Theoretical deduction......Page 626
Summary......Page 627
Significance......Page 629
Seasonal Snow Cover......Page 630
Structure of an ice core......Page 631
Geochemical characteristics of ice......Page 632
Particulates......Page 633
Thermal Infrared Sensors......Page 636
Bibliography......Page 1049
Origin......Page 637
Marine and terrestrial ice sheets......Page 642
Reworking of glacigenic sediments......Page 1041
History of measuring change in ice sheets......Page 646
New technologies for studying ice sheets......Page 647
Drivers of ice sheet change......Page 648
Evidence for recent changes in ice sheets......Page 649
Changes in ice shelves......Page 650
Summary or conclusions......Page 1217
Glaciolacustrine (or glacilacustrine) sedimentation......Page 1044
Ice sheet ``collapse´´: geological precedents for future rapid deglaciation?......Page 652
Bibliography......Page 653
Mass budget......Page 655
Historical terminus advance/retreat patterns......Page 981
Repeated altimetry survey......Page 657
Results......Page 658
Recent advance/retreat patterns of glaciers and ice caps......Page 983
Ice shelf dynamics......Page 660
Ice shelves in a changing climate......Page 661
Cross-references......Page 662
Synonyms......Page 664
Conclusions......Page 665
Deformation till and glaciotectonite......Page 990
Definition......Page 666
Bibliography......Page 667
Cross-references......Page 668
Origin......Page 669
Changes in permafrost conditions over time......Page 900
Synonyms......Page 888
Glaciotectonics......Page 671
Physical properties of snow......Page 672
The geological record of past ice sheets and glaciers......Page 673
Bibliography......Page 674
Significance......Page 675
Empirical models......Page 905
Oscillations of glaciers......Page 677
Mass balance of glaciers......Page 680
Summary......Page 681
Bibliography......Page 682
Ice shelves......Page 684
Sea ice......Page 685
Cross-references......Page 686
Snow and ice runoff......Page 688
Bibliography......Page 691
Bibliography......Page 693
Early development of IPY 2007-2008......Page 694
IPY 2007-2008 activities and achievements......Page 695
Intrusive Ice......Page 696
The World Glacier Inventory......Page 697
Definition......Page 698
Bibliography......Page 699
Introduction......Page 700
Main uses of inverse modeling in glaciology to date......Page 701
Bibliography......Page 702
Definition......Page 703
Introduction......Page 704
Temperature dependence of delta18O in precipitation......Page 705
Temporal and spatial variations of delta18O in precipitation......Page 706
Temperature dependence of delta18O in precipitation......Page 709
Temporal and spatial variations of delta18O in precipitation......Page 710
Bibliography......Page 711
Snow Metamorphism......Page 712
Assessing causality......Page 714
Nomenclature of isotope fractionation......Page 715
Bibliography......Page 716
Definition......Page 718
Synonyms......Page 1191
History of cryospheric research on Kilimanjaro......Page 719
Climate......Page 720
Horizontal glacier surfaces......Page 721
Maritime Alps (France/Italy)......Page 773
Kilimanjaro snow......Page 724
Bibliography......Page 725
Introduction......Page 726
Winter streamflow......Page 728
Bibliography......Page 729
Exploration of Lake Ellsworth......Page 732
Conclusions......Page 736
Definition......Page 737
Microphysics......Page 842
Synonyms......Page 860
Definition......Page 739
Alpine glacial erosion and the height of mountains......Page 742
Bibliography......Page 743
Breakdown of the summer monsoon, strengthening of the winter monsoon, and pioneering role of the subtropical inland ice......Page 746
Bibliography......Page 748
Latent Heat of Condensation......Page 749
Types of lateroglacial landforms and their processes of formation......Page 751
Synonyms......Page 756
Heinrich events and LIS instability......Page 758
Bibliography......Page 759
Polygenetic moraines and other important moraine types......Page 760
Lidar in practice......Page 763
Definition......Page 766
Bibliography......Page 767
Bibliography......Page 769
V-Shaped Valley......Page 771
Definition......Page 1201
Breaching of moraine dams......Page 811
Semi-empirical modeling......Page 1238
Dinaric and Albanian Alps (Montenegro/Albania)......Page 774
Pirin Mountains (Bulgaria)......Page 775
Cryosat-2 elevation......Page 947
Recent past and present-day sea level variations......Page 1016
Bibliography......Page 776
Introduction......Page 777
Temperature index models......Page 778
Some important snowmelt models......Page 779
Unit......Page 780
Seasonal characteristics and snowpack processes......Page 781
Temperature, glacier thermal regime, and meltwater......Page 782
Introduction: evolution of a geomorphological concept......Page 864
Bibliography......Page 783
Bibliography......Page 784
Meltwater Erosion......Page 785
Perennially Frozen Ground......Page 786
Bibliography......Page 787
Glacial ice as a microbial habitat: microbial survival and metabolic activity......Page 788
Microbial diversity associated with glaciers......Page 789
Recovery of microbial isolates from glaciers......Page 790
Monitoring and Warning Systems......Page 791
Bibliography......Page 792
Bibliography......Page 793
Introduction......Page 794
Bibliography......Page 795
Medial moraine......Page 797
Adverse effects of permafrost creep......Page 799
Rim ridges or circular-shaped moraines......Page 800
Image diagnostics......Page 883
Bibliography......Page 801
Definition......Page 803
Bibliography......Page 804
Snow Bed/Snow Bed Vegetation......Page 805
Bibliography......Page 807
Bibliography......Page 808
V......Page 810
Introduction......Page 1276
Other mechanisms......Page 814
Bibliography......Page 839
Thaw settlement and frost heave......Page 815
Hazard assessment......Page 817
Mitigation......Page 818
Bibliography......Page 819
Franz Josef glacier Ka Roimata O Hine Hukatere......Page 823
Summary......Page 827
Nye (N) Channels......Page 828
Glacier geomorphology......Page 833
Glacier geomorphometry......Page 834
Mass balance......Page 836
Debris-cover assessment......Page 837
Definition......Page 1264
Dam characteristics......Page 838
Bibliography......Page 840
Observations......Page 843
Climate change and variability......Page 844
Cross-references......Page 845
Temperature Lapse Rates in Glacierized Basins......Page 846
Definition......Page 848
Cross-references......Page 849
Identification of paleo-ice streams......Page 851
Paleo-ice streams and subglacial processes......Page 853
Bibliography......Page 854
Palaeoclimate and Past Glaciations......Page 855
Empirical curved or linear relationships......Page 856
Summary......Page 858
Measuring snow temperatures......Page 859
Introduction......Page 862
What techniques are used to derive sediment budgets?......Page 1023
Bibliography......Page 863
Paraglacial period......Page 866
Some new insights of paraglacial geomorphology......Page 867
Bibliography......Page 869
Cross-references......Page 870
Contemporary glacier behavior......Page 871
Bibliography......Page 872
Cross-references......Page 873
Origin......Page 874
Extent and significance of periglacial environments......Page 875
Periglacial ecosystems......Page 877
Periglacial landscapes......Page 879
Volumetric expansion......Page 880
Ice segregation......Page 881
Frozen ground......Page 882
Azonal processes......Page 884
Periglacial environments, environmental challenges, and global climate change......Page 886
Bibliography......Page 887
Permafrost distribution......Page 889
Active layer......Page 890
Ground ice......Page 892
Bibliography......Page 894
Definition......Page 895
Bibliography......Page 898
Bibliography......Page 903
Cross-references......Page 904
Introduction......Page 906
Snow metamorphism and climatic variables......Page 907
Specific surface area and grain size......Page 908
Summary......Page 909
Definition......Page 910
Plastic Flow......Page 911
Synonyms......Page 912
Future changes......Page 913
Types of precipitation......Page 915
Bibliography......Page 916
Sedimentation......Page 917
Bibliography......Page 918
Cross-references......Page 919
Determination of water balance......Page 1268
Synonyms......Page 920
The `glacial´ Pleistocene......Page 925
Last glaciation......Page 926
Summary......Page 927
Bibliography......Page 928
Slant-to-ground range correction......Page 931
Inversion model for wetness estimation......Page 934
Model for grain size estimation......Page 935
Seasonal snow cover mapping......Page 936
Snow mapping using repeat-pass interferometrictechniques......Page 938
Glacier facies mapping......Page 944
Surface albedo and emissivity modeling......Page 951
Microwave emission modeling......Page 955
Surface albedo and emissivity calculation......Page 956
SWE or snow depth retrieval......Page 957
Bibliography......Page 958
Ram Resistance......Page 964
Measuring variables needed to construct a rating curve......Page 965
Uses of rating curves......Page 966
Suspended sediment rating curve......Page 967
Bibliography......Page 968
Definition......Page 969
Introduction......Page 971
N-Asia, Siberia......Page 972
The Siberian mountains......Page 973
The mountains to the S and E outside of Siberia......Page 974
Bibliography......Page 977
Definition......Page 979
Resedimentation......Page 980
Complicating controls on terminus advance/retreat patterns......Page 982
Tidewater glacier cycle......Page 985
Definition......Page 986
Ice cover evolution and ice jams......Page 987
Bibliography......Page 988
Bibliography......Page 989
Bibliography......Page 994
Climate......Page 995
Snowpack......Page 996
Quaternary glaciation......Page 997
Bibliography......Page 998
Definition......Page 999
Runoff generated from snowmelt......Page 1000
Bibliography......Page 1001
Bibliography......Page 1002
Bibliography......Page 1003
Bibliography......Page 1004
Saltation......Page 1006
Present glaciers in Scandinavia......Page 1007
Bibliography......Page 1278
Sea ice structure and properties......Page 1011
Sea ice growth and decay......Page 1013
Sea level budget over the years 1993-2009......Page 1018
Summary......Page 1020
Seasonal Frost......Page 1021
Summary......Page 1024
Introduction......Page 1026
Holocene paleoclimatic trends and future prospects......Page 1029
Definition......Page 1031
Glacier dynamics......Page 1032
Thermal regime......Page 1033
Glacial erosion......Page 1034
Low-level debris entrainment and transport......Page 1035
High-level debris entrainment and transport......Page 1036
Debris transfer between low and high levels......Page 1038
Subglacial sedimentary processes......Page 1043
Glacial depositional landforms......Page 1045
Preservation potential of glacigenic successions......Page 1047
Earth´s glacial record......Page 1048
Sediment transfers......Page 1050
Bibliography......Page 1051
Rheology of sediment gravity flows......Page 1052
Deposits of fluidal sediment gravity flow......Page 1055
Rating-curve approaches......Page 1057
Subdivision of time series......Page 1058
Physical approaches......Page 1059
Summary......Page 1060
Source of sediment in glacierized basins......Page 1061
Summary......Page 1062
SEM analysis of glacial sediments......Page 1063
Antarctic tills......Page 1069
Experimental fractography......Page 1070
Conclusions......Page 1072
Bibliography......Page 1073
Serac......Page 1074
Frozen ground......Page 1075
Snow......Page 1076
Bibliography......Page 1077
Snow......Page 1078
Snow Course......Page 1079
Dendroclimatic mass balance reconstruction......Page 1254
Snow distribution in forests......Page 1080
Energy budget of snow in forests......Page 1081
Bibliography......Page 1082
Observed changes......Page 1083
Conclusions......Page 1084
Introduction......Page 1085
Branching......Page 1086
Bibliography......Page 1087
Continuum-scale uniaxial compression, uniaxial tension, and shear......Page 1088
Microstructural and grain-scale processes that control snow deformation......Page 1089
Uniaxial compression......Page 1090
Bibliography......Page 1091
Introduction......Page 1092
Measurement methods......Page 1093
Socioeconomic importance......Page 1094
Snow Drift......Page 1095
Snow Gauge......Page 1096
Grain shape......Page 1097
Grain size......Page 1098
Bibliography......Page 1099
Factors influencing snowmelt......Page 1100
Snowmelt production: energy balance methods......Page 1101
New directions in snow hydrology......Page 1104
Bibliography......Page 1105
Snow Layer......Page 1106
Snow Load......Page 1107
Conclusion......Page 1108
Snow Pillow......Page 1109
Snow Pit......Page 1110
Definition......Page 1111
Snow Skiing......Page 1113
Vegetation effects on snow......Page 1114
Bibliography......Page 1116
Measuring SWE......Page 1117
Definition......Page 1118
Examples from Glacier National Park, Montana, USA......Page 1119
Summary......Page 1120
Glacial chemical weathering......Page 1121
Source......Page 1124
Stable Isotopes......Page 1125
Stage-discharge relationship......Page 1126
Introduction......Page 1128
Snowpack formation and evolution: dry snow processes......Page 1129
Modeling snowpack structure......Page 1130
Introduction......Page 1131
Testing statistical significance......Page 1132
Example......Page 1134
Summary......Page 1135
Structural glaciology......Page 1136
Introduction......Page 1138
Measuring deformation......Page 1139
Assessing sediment properties......Page 1140
Hydraulic properties......Page 1141
Synonyms......Page 1142
Methods of empirical investigation......Page 1143
Configuration and change......Page 1144
Bibliography......Page 1145
The biology of subglacial systems......Page 1146
Summary......Page 1147
Glacier beds......Page 1148
Thermal and mechanical processes......Page 1149
Studying subglacial processes......Page 1150
Bibliography......Page 1151
Interesting features of subglacial volcanism......Page 1152
Sublimation from Snow and Ice......Page 1153
Characteristics of mass balance......Page 1154
Definition......Page 1155
Solutes......Page 1156
Interfacial effects......Page 1157
Bibliography......Page 1158
Components of the surface energy balance......Page 1159
Shortwave radiation fluxes......Page 1160
Longwave radiation fluxes......Page 1161
Net radiation flux......Page 1162
Latent heat flux......Page 1163
Subsurface heat flux......Page 1164
Melting and refreezing......Page 1165
Ablation zone of the west-greenland ice sheet......Page 1166
Ablation zone of morteratsch glacier, swiss alps......Page 1167
South pole, east antarctica......Page 1168
Bibliography......Page 1169
Introduction and background......Page 1170
Bibliography......Page 1171
Factors controlling variations in suspended sediment concentration......Page 1172
Measurement methods......Page 1173
Time series investigations......Page 1175
Hysteresis......Page 1176
Current investigations, controversies, and gaps in current knowledge......Page 1177
Bibliography......Page 1178
Cross-references......Page 1179
Repeat pass InSAR......Page 1180
Phase coherence......Page 1181
Three-dimensional flow estimation......Page 1182
Studies on land glaciers......Page 1184
Himalayan glaciers movement......Page 1185
Bibliography......Page 1188
Cross-references......Page 1189
Talik types......Page 1190
Surface temperature versus free-air lapse rates......Page 1193
The glacier boundary layer......Page 1194
Near-surface temperature lapse rates in glacier environments......Page 1195
Bibliography......Page 1196
Cross-references......Page 1197
Description of snow temperature profiles......Page 1198
Modeling the temperature distribution of a snowpack......Page 1200
Applications......Page 1203
Definition......Page 1204
Introduction......Page 1205
Phases of a thermokarst......Page 1206
Thermokarst initiation......Page 1207
Thermokarst growth......Page 1208
Summary......Page 1210
Bibliography......Page 1211
Recent trends in extent......Page 1213
Antarctica......Page 1214
Bibliography......Page 1215
Mountains on the Tibetan plateau......Page 1219
Glaciers on the Tibetan plateau......Page 1220
Ice cores from the Tibetan plateau......Page 1221
Introduction......Page 1222
Tidewater glacier dynamics......Page 1223
Tidewater outlet glaciers......Page 1224
Bibliography......Page 1225
Definition......Page 1226
Lodgement till......Page 1229
Melt-out till......Page 1231
Introduction......Page 1234
Topographic normalization......Page 1237
Radiative transfer modeling......Page 1239
Standardization......Page 1240
Introduction......Page 1244
Specific surface area and albedo......Page 1245
Thermal conductivity......Page 1246
The transformation of tundra to taiga......Page 1248
Other possible feedbacks......Page 1249
Bibliography......Page 1250
Bibliography......Page 1251
Dendroglaciology......Page 1252
Bibliography......Page 1255
Definition......Page 1256
Urban melt......Page 1259
Bibliography......Page 1263
Cross-references......Page 1265
Bibliography......Page 1266
Main characteristics of water balance as observed for the Vernagtferner, Oetztal Alps, Austria......Page 1269
Summary and outlook: water balance in glacierized regions under changed climate conditions......Page 1270
Bibliography......Page 1273
Winter accumulation glacier......Page 1274
Triggers - atmosphere or ocean?......Page 1277
Cross-references......Page 1279
List of Articles......Page 1280
Author Index......Page 1286
Subject Index......Page 1288