Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology - Chemical Engineering

Cover Page......Page 1
Table of Contents......Page 2
Glossary......Page 4
Absorption Processes......Page 5
Gas Solubility......Page 7
Mass Transfer Principles......Page 8
Dilute Solutions......Page 9
Multicomponent Absorption......Page 10
Absorption with Chemical Reaction......Page 11
Material Balances......Page 12
Dilute Systems......Page 13
Material Balances......Page 14
Absorption Factors......Page 15
Rate Models......Page 17
Process Design......Page 18
Packed Columns......Page 19
Tray Columns......Page 21
Other Contactors......Page 23
Packed Columns......Page 24
Tray Columns......Page 25
Nomenclature......Page 26
References......Page 28
Glossary......Page 29
General Applications......Page 30
Microporous Adsorbents......Page 31
Thermodynamics of Adsorption......Page 32
Adsorption Kinetics......Page 34
Micropore Diffusion......Page 35
External Mass Transfer Resistance......Page 36
Measurement of Intraparticle Diffusivities......Page 37
Adsorption Column Dynamics......Page 38
Mathematical Modeling......Page 39
Chromatography......Page 40
Cyclic Batch Adsorption Processes......Page 41
Thermal Swing Processes......Page 42
Pressure Swing Processes......Page 43
Displacement Desorption......Page 44
Simulated Countercurrent Systems......Page 46
References......Page 48
Glossary......Page 50
Colloidal Stability......Page 51
Natural Phenomena......Page 52
Particle Technology......Page 53
Environmental Influence......Page 55
Critical Physical Properties......Page 56
Particle Size Distribution......Page 57
Chemical Properties......Page 59
Stokes’ Law and Momentum Transfer......Page 60
Phoretic Forces......Page 61
Curvilinear Particle Motion......Page 62
Diffusion Processes......Page 63
Nucleation and Growth......Page 64
Growth Laws......Page 65
Nucleation and Condensation Processes......Page 66
Measurement  Principles......Page 67
Electrical Charging and Particle Size......Page 68
Centrifugation......Page 69
Diffusion and Filtration......Page 70
Single-Particle Optical Analyzers......Page 71
Remote Sensing Techniques......Page 72
Macroscopic Techniques......Page 73
Industrial Gas Cleaning......Page 74
Filtration......Page 75
References......Page 76
Glossary......Page 77
Discontinuous Processing......Page 78
Batch Processing Plants......Page 79
Multipurpose Plant......Page 80
Economics of Batch Operations......Page 81
Batch Cost Minimization......Page 82
Batch Process Management......Page 83
Defined Modeling......Page 84
Multistage Modeling......Page 85
Mathematical Expression......Page 86
Solution of the Problem......Page 87
Safety......Page 88
Failure of Materials......Page 90
Stress and Fatigue......Page 91
References......Page 92
Glossary......Page 93
Economics......Page 94
History......Page 95
Mechanisms of Industrial Catalysis Reactions......Page 96
Polyethylene (Ziegler-Natta catalyst)......Page 97
Alcohols from esters......Page 98
Research for Profit......Page 99
Basic Catalysis......Page 100
Licensing......Page 101
References......Page 102
Glossary......Page 103
Particulates......Page 104
Unsupported Particulate Catalysts......Page 105
Gas Adsorption: Surface Area......Page 106
Mercury Intrusion......Page 107
Powders......Page 108
Crush Strength of Single Pellet......Page 109
Attrition and Abrasion......Page 110
Electron Microscopy......Page 111
Elemental Analysis......Page 114
Crystallinity......Page 116
Chemisorption......Page 117
Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 118
Crystallite Size by X-Ray Diffraction......Page 119
Electrochemical Technique: Cyclic Voltammetry......Page 120
Surface Composition......Page 121
Complementary Techniques......Page 122
Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 123
Magnetic Resonance......Page 124
Neutrons......Page 125
M¨ossbauer Spectroscopy......Page 126
References......Page 127
Glossary......Page 129
Process Models......Page 130
Algebraic Equations......Page 131
Partial Differential Equations......Page 132
Flowsheet Simulations......Page 133
Structure of Optimization Problems......Page 134
Unconstrained Optimization......Page 135
Process Synthesis......Page 137
Heat Exchanger Network Synthesis......Page 138
Introduction......Page 139
Process Operation......Page 141
Petroleum Refining Example......Page 143
References......Page 144
Glossary......Page 145
Overview......Page 146
Mode-Selective Chemistry......Page 147
Coherent Phase Control......Page 148
Introduction......Page 154
Perturbative Treatment......Page 157
Optimal Control......Page 159
Experimental Examples of Wave Packet Control......Page 161
Genetic Algorithms......Page 162
Coherent Population Transfer......Page 164
Control of External Degrees of Freedom......Page 165
References......Page 169
Glossary......Page 170
Fluid Properties......Page 171
Superconductivity......Page 173
Refrigeration and Liquefaction......Page 174
Isenthalpic Expansion......Page 175
Combined Isenthalpic and Isentropic Expansion......Page 176
Cryocoolers......Page 177
Air Separation......Page 178
Rare Gas Recovery......Page 180
Natural Gas Processing......Page 181
Equipment for Cryogenic Processing......Page 182
Expansion Devices......Page 183
Expansion Valve......Page 184
Plate–Fin Exchangers......Page 185
Reversing Exchangers......Page 186
Insulation Concepts......Page 187
Multilayer Insulation......Page 188
Storage Systems......Page 189
Instrumentation......Page 190
Human Hazards......Page 191
Flammability and Detonability......Page 192
References......Page 193
Glossary......Page 194
Objectives of Crystallization Processes......Page 195
Solid–Liquid Equilibrium......Page 196
Mass and Energy Balances......Page 198
Supersaturation......Page 200
Mechanisms......Page 201
Mechanisms......Page 202
Fundamentals of Crystal Growth......Page 203
Crystal Growth in Mixed Crystallizers......Page 204
Crystal Purity......Page 205
Crystal Morphology......Page 206
Crystal Size Distributions......Page 208
Relationship of Solubility to Mode of Operation......Page 211
Crystallizers......Page 212
 Perfectly Mixed, Continuous Crystallizers......Page 214
Preferential Removal of Crystals......Page 216
Batch Crystallization......Page 219
Summary......Page 221
References......Page 222
Glossary......Page 223
General Description......Page 224
Distillation Theory......Page 227
Distillation Column Design......Page 229
Calculation of the Required Number of Theoretical Stages......Page 230
Flash Distillation......Page 231
Reactive Distillation......Page 232
Energy Consumption......Page 233
Distillation Column Control......Page 234
References......Page 235
Glossary......Page 236
Cell Description......Page 237
Potential......Page 238
Ion Conduction......Page 239
Electrode Kinetics......Page 240
Governing Equations......Page 242
Mass-Transfer Boundary Layer......Page 243
Primary Current Distribution......Page 244
Tertiary Current Distribution......Page 245
Current Distribution Characteristics......Page 246
Process Modeling......Page 247
Technical Factors......Page 248
Energy Conversion Systems......Page 249
Future Developments......Page 250
References......Page 252
Glossary......Page 253
Generic Principle of Balance......Page 254
Equations of Motion......Page 255
Entropy Production Principle......Page 257
Constitutive Relations......Page 258
Momentum Balance......Page 259
Head concept......Page 260
Pump or work head......Page 261
Thermal Energy (Heat Transfer)......Page 263
Newtonian......Page 264
Friction Factors......Page 265
Power law......Page 266
Reynolds Stresses......Page 267
Mixing Length Models......Page 268
Other Closure Models......Page 269
Specific design conditions......Page 270
Herschel–Bulkley Model Pipe Flow......Page 271
Hydraulic Grade Line Method......Page 272
Pumps......Page 274
Centrifugal pumps......Page 275
Drag Coefficients......Page 276
See also the Following Articles......Page 277
References......Page 278
Glossary......Page 279
General Principles......Page 280
Shear Rate......Page 282
Baffles and Impeller Position......Page 283
Process Considerations......Page 284
Scaleup Relationships......Page 287
Role of Dynamic and Geometric Similarity......Page 288
Liquid-Solid Contacting......Page 290
Gas-Liquid Contacting......Page 292
Effect of Gas Rate on Power Consumption......Page 294
Liquid Extraction......Page 295
Low-Viscosity Blending......Page 296
Side-Entering Mixers......Page 297
Fluid Motion......Page 298
Heat Transfer......Page 299
Inline Mixers......Page 300
Pilot Plant Procedures......Page 301
Shear Rate Magnitude and Total Shear Work......Page 302
What to Do in the Pilot Plant......Page 303
References......Page 304
Glossary......Page 319
Pressure as a Thermodynamic Variable......Page 320
Static Apparatus......Page 321
Dynamic Pressure Generation......Page 326
General Considerations of Phase Changes......Page 327
Diamond Synthesis......Page 328
Synthesis of Other Inorganic Materials......Page 330
Journey to the Center of the Earth......Page 331
Reference......Page 332
Glossary......Page 305
Applications in Chemical Engineering......Page 306
Criteria for Selection......Page 307
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers......Page 308
Plate-Fin Exchanger......Page 311
Air-Cooled Exchangers......Page 312
Other Types of Heat Exchangers......Page 313
Rate Equation......Page 314
The Design Integral and the Mean Temperature Difference......Page 315
The Design Process......Page 316
See also the Following Articles......Page 317
References......Page 318
Glossary......Page 334
Diffusion Across a Thin Film......Page 335
Diffusion of a Pulse......Page 336
Problems with this Simple Picture......Page 337
Dispersion......Page 338
Mass Transfer......Page 339
Mass Transfer Coefficients......Page 340
Problems with Mass Transfer Coefficients......Page 341
Conclusions......Page 342
References......Page 343
Glossary......Page 344
Major Membrane Application Types......Page 345
Simple Effects......Page 347
Hindered Transport......Page 348
Concentration Polarization and Fouling in MF, UF,and NF......Page 349
Sorption-Diffusion Separation Mechanisms......Page 351
Membrane Material Selection......Page 352
Membrane Modularization and Packaging......Page 353
Simple” Sorption-Diffusion Mechanism......Page 356
Ion-Conducting Membranes......Page 362
Strategies to Deal with Gas Separation Membranes Shortcomings......Page 363
Crosslinking Approach......Page 364
Mixed Matrix Approach......Page 365
Hydrogen Separations......Page 366
Air Separation......Page 368
Acid Gas Removal......Page 371
Organic Vapor Separations......Page 372
Pervaporation......Page 373
Alcohol Dehydration......Page 374
Production of Organic Acid Esters......Page 376
Membrane Distillation......Page 377
Reverse Osmosis......Page 378
Ultrafiltration......Page 383
Microfiltration......Page 385
Membrane Solvent Extraction/Membrane Contactors......Page 386
Emulsified Liquid Membranes......Page 387
Facilitated Transport and Coupled Transport......Page 388
Industrial Dialysis......Page 389
Electrodialysis......Page 390
Electrolysis......Page 391
Bipolar Membrane Syntheses......Page 392
Catalytic Membrane Reactors for Chemical Processing......Page 393
Applications in Discovery and Research......Page 394
Separation by Size or Charge Discrimination......Page 396
High-Performance Tangential Flow Filtration......Page 397
Membrane-Based Affinity Separation......Page 398
Membrane Bioreactors......Page 399
Hemodialysis, Hemofiltration......Page 401
Blood Oxygenation......Page 402
Controlled Release......Page 404
Active Controlled Release......Page 405
Membrane Sensors......Page 406
References......Page 407
Glossary......Page 410
Historical Development of MOCVD......Page 411
General Description of the MOCVD Process......Page 412
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reactions......Page 413
General Description of MOCVD Growth Systems......Page 415
Properties of Common Metalorganics And Hydrides Used For Mocvd......Page 418
GaAs and AlGaAs......Page 421
InAlGaP/GaAs......Page 422
IV–VI Semiconductor Compounds......Page 423
Other Developments In Mocvd......Page 424
References......Page 425
Introduction......Page 427
History of Pollution Prevention......Page 428
How Does one Define Pollution Prevention?......Page 429
Drivers for Pollution Prevention......Page 430
The Recipe for Success......Page 433
Establishing the Program......Page 435
Implementation Phase......Page 436
Resources......Page 437
Engineering Evaluations of the Preferred Options......Page 438
When Should one Do Pollution Prevention?......Page 439
Program Elements—U.S. EPA and DuPont Chambers Works Waste Minimization Project......Page 440
Process Analysis—Replace Solvent with a Process Intermediate, Product, or Feed......Page 441
Conclusion......Page 442
References......Page 443
Glossary......Page 444
Historical Development of the Pulp and Paper Industry......Page 445
Furnish for Pulp and Paper......Page 446
Wood Quality......Page 447
Kraft Pulping......Page 448
Other Options......Page 449
Process Considerations......Page 450
The Range of Mechanical Pulping......Page 451
Prospectus......Page 453
Chemistry of Bleaching......Page 454
Papermaking......Page 456
Process Considerations in Papermaking......Page 457
Tissue:......Page 458
References......Page 459
Glossary......Page 461
Heterogeneous......Page 462
Classification......Page 463
Classification......Page 464
Advantages–Disadvantages......Page 465
Description......Page 466
Use of the Reaction Coordinate or Molar Extent of Reaction......Page 467
Rate Expressions......Page 469
General Reactor Design Equation......Page 470
Variable Volume Batch Reactors.......Page 471
 Ideal Continuous-Stirred Tank Reactor Design Equations.......Page 472
Space Time......Page 473
Batch Versus Flow Reactors......Page 474
Special Reactor Configurations......Page 475
Classification......Page 476
Description......Page 477
Applications......Page 478
Description......Page 479
Classification......Page 480
References......Page 481
Glossary......Page 482
Equilibrium in Extraction Systems......Page 483
Rates of Mass Transfer......Page 485
Stagewise Processes......Page 486
Differential Contact......Page 487
Industrial Extraction Equipment......Page 488
Unagitated Columns......Page 489
Mixer–Settlers......Page 490
Pulsed Columns......Page 492
Mechanically Agitated Columns......Page 493
Centrifugal Extractors......Page 494
Organic Processes......Page 495
Antibiotics......Page 496
Food Processing......Page 498
Biopolymer extraction......Page 499
Nuclear Industry......Page 500
Phosphoric Acid......Page 501
Membrane Extraction......Page 502
References......Page 503
Glossary......Page 504
Amphoteric Surfactants......Page 505
The Hydrophilic–Lipophil Balance (HLB)......Page 506
Physical Properties of Surfactant Solutions......Page 507
Thermodynamics of Micellization......Page 509
Adsorption of Surfactant at the Solid/Liquid Interface......Page 510
Surfactants as Emulsifiers......Page 511
Surfactants as Dispersants......Page 512
Role of Surfactants in Stabilization of Emulsions and Suspensions......Page 513
Surfactants in Foams......Page 515
Application of Surfactants in Cosmetics and Personal Care Products......Page 516
Application of Surfactants in Pharmaceuticals......Page 517
Application of Surfactants in the Food Industry......Page 518
References......Page 519
Glossary......Page 520
History......Page 521
Gasification......Page 523
Synthesis......Page 525
Gas from Coal......Page 526
Liquids and Clean Solids from Coal......Page 528
Liquids from Oil Shale and Tar Sands......Page 530
Conversion Processes......Page 532
References......Page 533
Glossary......Page 534
Major Feedstocks and Products......Page 535
Chemistry of Pryolysis Gas-Phase Reactions)......Page 536
Kinetics of Pyrolysis......Page 537
Coke Formation......Page 538
Oxide Layer in Inner Surface of Coils in Furnaces......Page 539
Cracking Furnace and Reactor......Page 541
Product Gas Cooling and Compression......Page 544
Product Separation......Page 545
Cracking Reactor and Heat Recovery Equipment......Page 546
References......Page 547