Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology - Condensed Matter

Introduction: Molecules and Solids......Page 1
Molecular Crystals......Page 2
Ionic Crystals and Electronegativity......Page 3
Mixed Covalent and Ionic Bonding......Page 4
Metallic Bonding......Page 5
Quantum Structural Diagrams......Page 6
Complete Quantum Structure Analysis......Page 7
References......Page 8
Glossary......Page 9
Molecular Spectroscopy......Page 10
Electronic Spectroscopy......Page 11
Molecular Structures......Page 12
Diffraction Methods......Page 13
Dynamics of Molecular Processes......Page 14
Lasers in Chemical Physics......Page 15
Statistical Mechanics......Page 16
Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics......Page 17
Monte Carlo Simulations......Page 18
References......Page 19
Glossary......Page 20
Hildebrand Parameter......Page 21
Component Cohesion Parameters......Page 22
Other Cohesion Parameters......Page 23
Chameleonic Behavior......Page 25
Spectroscopic Parameters......Page 27
Liquids......Page 28
Gases......Page 29
Polymers......Page 30
Rate and Transport Properties......Page 32
Empirical Methods......Page 33
Selected Values......Page 34
Current Status......Page 35
References......Page 38
Glossary......Page 39
Introduction......Page 40
Heavy-Atom Methods......Page 41
Data Collection......Page 42
Charge-Density Distribution......Page 43
Rietveld Analysis......Page 44
Small-Angle Scattering......Page 45
Implications of New X-Ray and Neutron Sources......Page 46
Choice of Unit Cell......Page 47
Basic Formulas of Crystallography......Page 48
Growing Crystals......Page 49
Mounting a Crystal......Page 50
Data Reduction......Page 51
Solving the Phase Problem......Page 52
Comparison of X-ray and Neutron Diffraction......Page 53
Crystallographic Databases......Page 55
Powder Diffraction File......Page 56
Reaction Coordinate......Page 57
Crystallography and Molecular Mechanics......Page 58
References......Page 71
Glossary......Page 72
A Bond Picture......Page 73
Free-Electron Model Of Metals......Page 74
Representations of Energy Bands......Page 75
Interpretation of E versus k Curves......Page 76
Optical Reflection......Page 78
Absorption Processes......Page 79
Photoelectronic Effects......Page 80
Ohm’s Law......Page 82
Scattering and Mobility......Page 83
Imperfections in Semiconductors......Page 84
Fermi Level in Semiconductors......Page 85
Galvanomagnetothermoelectric Effects......Page 86
Hall Effect......Page 87
Amorphous Semiconductors......Page 88
Superconductors......Page 89
Junctions......Page 90
Magnetic Properties......Page 92
References......Page 94
Glossary......Page 95
Excitation of the n-Particle System......Page 96
Direct Nondegenerate Semiconductors......Page 97
Indirect Transitions......Page 98
Magnetic Fields......Page 99
Strain Field......Page 100
Degenerate Semiconductors......Page 101
Nondegenerate Semiconductors......Page 102
Bound-Exciton Excited States......Page 103
Magnetic Field......Page 104
Stress Field......Page 105
Donor–Acceptor Pairs......Page 106
Exciton–Bound-Phonon Quasi-Particle......Page 107
Spatial Resonance Dispersion......Page 108
Two-Photon Processes......Page 109
Excitons in Quantum Wells and Quantum Dots......Page 110
Hole-Electron Droplets......Page 112
Exciton Mechanism in Superconductivity......Page 113
Lasing Transitions......Page 115
References......Page 116
Glossary......Page 117
Basic Concept of Magnetism......Page 118
Origin of Magnetism......Page 119
Magnetization Curves......Page 120
The Hysteresis Loop......Page 121
Antiferromagnetic Order......Page 122
Magnons......Page 123
Magnetoresistance and Giant Magnetoresistance......Page 124
Ferromagnetic Materials and their Applications......Page 125
References......Page 126
Introduction......Page 127
Interaction Mechanisms......Page 128
Semiconductor Detectors......Page 129
Level Scheme Construction......Page 130
The Evolution of Detector Arrays......Page 132
Peak-to-Total Ratio and Escape Suppression......Page 133
Doppler Effects and Segmentation......Page 134
Tracking Detectors......Page 136
The GRID Technique......Page 137
Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy and Nuclear Structure......Page 138
Beta-Decay......Page 139
(n, γ ) Reactions......Page 140
Backbending and the Pauli Principle......Page 141
Superdeformation......Page 142
Magnetic Rotation and Chiral Symmetry......Page 143
Spectroscopy in Coincidence with Separators......Page 145
Experiments with Radioactive Beams......Page 146
References......Page 148
Glossary......Page 149
Fluid Systems......Page 150
Experimental Probes......Page 151
Multi-staging......Page 152
Multi-Anvil Devices......Page 153
Diamond-Anvil Cells (DAC)......Page 155
Fundamental Principles......Page 157
Experimental Techniques......Page 158
Measurement Techniques......Page 160
Equations of State......Page 162
Semiconductors......Page 163
Structural Measurements......Page 164
Superconducting Materials......Page 165
Melting/Freezing Phenomena......Page 166
References......Page 167
Glossary......Page 168
Categories of Impedance Spectroscopy: Definitions and Distinctions......Page 169
Measurement Methods......Page 170
Graphics......Page 171
Strengths and weaknesses......Page 173
Recent developments......Page 175
Bulk and Reaction Response......Page 176
Other DCEs......Page 177
Equivalent Circuits......Page 178
Batteries and Fuel Cells......Page 179
References......Page 180
Glossary......Page 181
Diffraction......Page 182
What is Aperiodic Order?......Page 183
Incommensurate Crystals......Page 184
Quasicrystals......Page 185
A One-Dimensional Quasicrystal......Page 186
Quasiperiodic Tilings......Page 187
Clusters and Coverings......Page 189
Disorder and Randomness......Page 192
Physical Properties of Quasicrystals......Page 194
Appearance of Quasicrystals in Nature......Page 195
Electronic Properties......Page 196
Applications......Page 198
References......Page 199
Glossary......Page 200
Description of the Model......Page 201
Interacting Boson Model-1 (IBM-1)......Page 202
IBM-3 and IBM-4......Page 203
Boson–fermion Symmetries......Page 204
Microscopic Interpretations of the IBM......Page 205
References......Page 206
Glossary......Page 207
Description of Liquid Crystal Phases......Page 208
Cholesteric.......Page 209
Smectic Phases......Page 211
Smectic A.......Page 212
Other smectics.......Page 213
Polymorphism......Page 214
Lamellar......Page 215
Properties of Liquid Crystals......Page 216
Elastic Properties......Page 218
Flow......Page 219
Director Alignment......Page 220
Flow Alignment......Page 221
Optical Properties......Page 222
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance......Page 225
Liquid Crystal Displays......Page 226
Statistical Mechanics......Page 228
References......Page 229
Glossary......Page 230
Origins of Luminescences......Page 231
Spin Multiplicity......Page 232
Atomic and Molecular Excited States......Page 233
Excimers and Exciplexes......Page 235
Methods of Studying and Characterizing Excited States......Page 237
Intramolecular Processes......Page 241
Bimolecular Processes......Page 242
Multiphoton Processes......Page 243
Photoluminescence......Page 244
Chemiluminescence......Page 245
Electroluminescence......Page 247
Cathodoluminescence......Page 249
Thermoluminescence......Page 250
Flame Emissions......Page 251
Fracto-Emission or Triboluminescence......Page 252
References......Page 253
Glossary......Page 255
Magnetostatics......Page 259
Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy......Page 261
Magnetoelastic Interactions......Page 262
Exchange Energy, Magnetic Domain Walls, Domains......Page 264
Electronic Structure of Magnetic Oxides and Metals......Page 265
Spinel Ferrites......Page 266
Intermetallic Compounds and Amorphous Alloys......Page 267
B-H Loops and Magnetic Domains......Page 268
Soft Magnetic Materials......Page 269
Nanomagnetic Materials......Page 271
Hard Magnetic Materials......Page 272
Electronic Transport in Magnetic Materials......Page 274
Magnetic Recording......Page 277
References......Page 280
Glossary......Page 281
Phenomenological Aspects......Page 282
Analysis of Complex Permittivity Spectra of Liquids......Page 284
Experimental Methods......Page 286
Molecular Interpretation
Of Relaxation Modes......Page 287
References......Page 290
Glossary......Page 291
Crystal Chemistry......Page 292
Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Perovskite Oxides......Page 293
Oxides of K2NIF4 Structure......Page 295
High-temperature Superconductors......Page 296
Why are Perovskites Special?......Page 297
References......Page 298
Glossary......Page 299
Description of Radiation Physics......Page 300
Photons......Page 301
Flux and Fluence......Page 303
General......Page 304
Photoelectric absorption (τ )......Page 305
Rayleigh scattering (σcoh)......Page 306
Other photon interactions......Page 307
Total cross section (ótot) and the mass attenuation coefficient (µ/ñ)......Page 308
Other factors governing photon attenuation......Page 309
Mass energy-transfer coefficient µtr/ρ and mass 
energy-absorption coefficient µen/ρ......Page 310
Cherenkov Radiation......Page 311
Point Source......Page 312
Finite Plane Isotropic Source with Exponential and Inverse-Square-Law Attenuation, and Buildup Factor......Page 313
Rectangular Plaque Source......Page 314
Radiation Units......Page 315
Useful General Constants......Page 316
References......Page 317
Glossary......Page 319
Effect of a Magnetic Field on Superconductivity and the Meissner Effect......Page 320
Elements, Compounds, and Alloys......Page 321
Low-Carrier Density Superconductors......Page 322
Amorphous Superconductors......Page 323
Organic Superconductors......Page 324
Correlation: Tc with the Electronic Structure of a Solid......Page 325
London Equation and Coherence Length......Page 326
Coherence Length and Energy Gap......Page 327
Thermodynamics of Superconductivity......Page 328
Magnetic Superconductors......Page 330
Theory of Superconductivity......Page 331
Applications of Superconductivity......Page 332
Recent Developments: High-Transition Temperature Superconductivity......Page 333
References......Page 334
Glossary......Page 335
Introduction......Page 336
The Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) Theory: A  Brief Summary......Page 337
Instability of the Electron Gas State in the Case of Attractive Interaction between Electrons: Cooper Pairs......Page 338
Properties of the Superconducting State: The Pairing Theory......Page 339
Summary of the Properties: The Homogeneous State......Page 340
Strong—Coupling Effects: The Eliashberg Approach......Page 342
Narrow—Band Systems......Page 343
Hubbard Subbands and Hole States......Page 345
Localized versus Itinerant Electrons: Metal–Insulator Transitions......Page 347
Strongly Correlated Electrons: Kinetic Exchange Interaction and Magnetic Phases in Three-Dimensonal Space......Page 349
The Classical Approach......Page 350
The Quantum Approach: Two Dimensions......Page 351
The Spin Liquid......Page 352
Hybridized Systems......Page 354
The Electronic States of Superconducting Oxides......Page 355
Narrow–Band Systems......Page 358
Hybridized Systems......Page 362
An Overview......Page 363
Phonons and Bipolarons......Page 367
Charge Excitations......Page 368
References......Page 371
Introduction......Page 374
The Normal State......Page 376
Magnetic......Page 377
Persistent currents and flux Quantization......Page 380
Energy gap......Page 381
Tunneling......Page 382
High Magnetic Field, High Direct Current......Page 383
History......Page 384
Coherence Length......Page 385
BCS Theory......Page 386
Beyond BCS......Page 387
Electron Energies in a Typical Insulator......Page 389
Transition-Metal Oxides......Page 390
General considerations......Page 391
MnO, a single-valent compound with W U......Page 392
Li[Ti2]O4, a mixed-valent compound with W> 
h. ωR......Page 394
Oxides with only M O M interactions......Page 395
Peculiarity of copper oxides......Page 396
Superconductive versus CDW State......Page 397
Structure......Page 398
Phase identification......Page 400
Underdoped......Page 401
Optimally doped......Page 402
System YBa2Cu3O6+x......Page 403
T  -Ln2-xCexCuO4......Page 405
References......Page 406
Glossary......Page 408
Introduction and Basic Thermoelectric Effects......Page 409
Thermodynamics of an Irreversible Process......Page 410
Metals......Page 412
Statistical Relationships......Page 414
The Fermi Distribution......Page 415
The Boltzmann Function......Page 416
Semimetals......Page 419
Semiconductors......Page 420
Generators and Coolers......Page 421
Summary......Page 424
References......Page 425
Glossary......Page 426
Bragg’s Law......Page 427
Reciprocal Lattice—Ewald Construction......Page 428
Convergent-Beam Electron Diffraction......Page 429
Kinematical Diffraction Theory......Page 430
Dynamical Theory......Page 431
Diffraction Contrast Images......Page 432
Moire Fringes......Page 433
Dislocation Contrast......Page 434
Computer Simulation of Dislocation Images......Page 436
Translation Interfaces......Page 437
Image Formation in an Ideal Microscope......Page 440
Spherical Aberration......Page 441
Chromatic Aberration......Page 442
Image Formation of a Weak-Phase Object......Page 443
Optimum Defocus Images......Page 444
Lattice Images......Page 445
Mode 5......Page 447
High-Resolution Imaging Interpretation and Simulation......Page 448
Scanning Electron Microscopes......Page 449
Analytical Electron Microscopy......Page 450
Energy Loss Spectroscopy and Imaging......Page 451
Auger Electron Emission......Page 452
Thinning Methods......Page 453
Dislocations......Page 454
Planar Interfaces......Page 455
Single Defects......Page 457
References......Page 459
Glossary......Page 461
X-Ray Scattering......Page 463
Neutron Scattering......Page 464
Basic Formulas for Diffraction......Page 465
Kinematical Theory of Diffraction by Crystals......Page 466
Perfect Crystal:Dynamical Theory of Diffraction......Page 468
Real Crystal and Extinction Powder Diffraction......Page 470
Properties of SR......Page 471
X-Ray Optics for Synchrotron Radiation BeAmlines......Page 474
Multilayers......Page 475
Other X-Ray Optical Elements......Page 476
Beamline......Page 478
Structure Determination, Protein Crystallography......Page 479
Surface Structures......Page 482
Microdiffraction......Page 483
Nuclear Reactors and Spallation Sources......Page 485
Neutron Diffraction, Methods and Applications......Page 487
Neutron Crystallography......Page 489
Powder Diffraction and Rietveld Method......Page 490
Magnetic Structures......Page 491
Future Developments......Page 493
References......Page 495