Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, Optics

Cover Page......Page 1
Table of Contents......Page 2
Glossary......Page 3
Introduction......Page 4
Round Lenses......Page 5
Quadrupoles......Page 9
Traditional Method......Page 10
Lie Methods......Page 13
Guns......Page 14
Magnetic Lenses......Page 15
Aberration Correction......Page 17
Prisms, Mirrors, and Energy Analyzers......Page 20
Wave Propagation......Page 22
Instrumental Optics: Microscopes......Page 24
Interference and Holography......Page 29
Digital Processing......Page 30
References......Page 31
Glossary......Page 33
The Generic Problem......Page 34
Operating Regimes......Page 35
Rigorous Coupled-Wave Analysis......Page 36
Transmittance Diffraction Theory......Page 38
Two-Wave Coupled-Wave Analysis......Page 39
Effective Medium Theory (EMT)......Page 41
Optical Interconnects......Page 43
Diffractive Lenses......Page 44
Antireflection (AR) Surfaces......Page 45
Polarization Devices......Page 46
Distributed-Index Devices......Page 47
Guided-Mode Resonance (GMR) Devices......Page 49
Laser Interference Recording......Page 50
An Example Process......Page 51
References......Page 52
Glossary......Page 53
Basic Principles......Page 54
Classification of Holograms......Page 57
Recording Materials......Page 59
Applications......Page 60
References......Page 64
Glossary......Page 65
Thin Lenses......Page 66
Newton’s Form of the Lens Equation......Page 67
Lens Aberrations......Page 68
Diffraction......Page 70
Human Eye......Page 71
Camera......Page 73
Projection System......Page 74
Conventional Microscope......Page 75
Microscope Illuminators......Page 76
Scanning Confocal Microscope......Page 77
Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscope......Page 78
Terrestrial Telescope......Page 79
References......Page 80
Glossary......Page 81
Semiconductor Physics......Page 82
Device Physics......Page 85
Material Growth......Page 88
Chip Fabrication......Page 89
Reliability Issues......Page 90
Materials......Page 91
Applications......Page 92
Inorganic LED Materials......Page 93
Organic LED Materials......Page 95
System Uses......Page 96
See also the Following Articles......Page 97
References......Page 98
Glossary......Page 99
Twisted Nematic......Page 100
Supertwisted Nematic......Page 103
Single-Polarizer Guest–Host Devices......Page 104
Megapixel Technologies......Page 105
Active Matrix......Page 106
Ferroelectric LCDs......Page 107
Smectic A and Cholesteric......Page 109
Fast Shutters......Page 110
Spatial Light Modulators......Page 111
Liquid Crystal Polymers......Page 112
References......Page 113
Glossary......Page 114
Basic Theory for Microoptics......Page 115
Guided-Wave Theory......Page 118
Microlens......Page 119
Multilayer Mirror and Filter......Page 120
Coupler......Page 121
Functional Components......Page 122
Imager......Page 123
Laser Disks......Page 124
Fiber Sensors......Page 125
Focusing Method......Page 126
Reflection Pattern......Page 127
Planar Microlens Array......Page 128
Design Rule of Stacked Planar Optics......Page 129
Applications of Stacked Planar Optics......Page 130
References......Page 133
Glossary......Page 134
Introduction......Page 135
Geometrical Vector Flux......Page 136
Tailored Edge-Ray Design Method for Nonimaging Concentrators......Page 137
Solar Thermal Application......Page 138
Two-Stage Maximally Concentrating Systems......Page 142
Applications......Page 145
Solar Processing of Materials......Page 146
Using Highly Concentrated Sunlight in Space......Page 147
References......Page 148
Glossary......Page 150
Optical Nonlinearities— Physical Origins......Page 151
Nonlinear Polarizations......Page 153
Classifications of Nonlinear Interactions......Page 154
Frequency–Conversion Processes......Page 155
Second-order effects.......Page 157
Second-harmonic generation.......Page 159
Three-wave sum–frequency mixing.......Page 164
Parametric down-conversion.......Page 165
Third- and higher-order processes.......Page 167
Stimulated Scattering Processes......Page 172
Stimulated Raman scattering.......Page 175
Stimulated Brillouin scattering.......Page 178
Spatial Effects......Page 179
Self-Defocusing......Page 181
Self-Phase Modulation......Page 182
Nonlinear Absorption......Page 184
Coherent Optical Effects......Page 185
Electrooptic and Magnetooptic Effects......Page 186
Nonlinear Spectroscopy......Page 187
Optical Phase Conjugation......Page 189
Optical Bistability......Page 193
References......Page 194
Glossary......Page 195
Structure of the Semiconductor Optical Amplifier......Page 196
Gain Mechanism......Page 197
Spectral Properties......Page 198
Facet Reflectivity......Page 199
Gain Compression......Page 201
Amplified Spontaneous Emission......Page 202
Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Noise Figure......Page 203
Carrier Lifetime......Page 205
Optical Modulation......Page 206
Optical Phase Modulation......Page 207
Four-Wave Mixing......Page 208
References......Page 210
Glossary......Page 212
Thermal Detectors......Page 213
Fundamental Limits to Electronic Detector Performance......Page 215
Quantum or Photon Limits......Page 216
Analog or Continuous Signal Mode......Page 217
Temporal Response......Page 218
Photomultiplier......Page 219
Photoconductor......Page 220
Reverse-Biased Diode......Page 221
Photovoltaic Mode......Page 222
Graph of Detector Characteristics......Page 223
Heterodyne Detection......Page 224
Optical Amplification......Page 225
Solid-State Arrays and the CCD......Page 226
References......Page 228
Glossary......Page 229
Fourier Optics......Page 230
Kirchhoff Formulation of the Diffraction by a Plane Screen......Page 231
Rotationally Invariant Fields and Airy Pattern......Page 232
Fields in the Focal Region of a Lens......Page 233
Field Near a Caustic......Page 234
Fock–Leontovich Parabolic Wave Equation......Page 235
Geometric Theory of Diffraction......Page 236
Diffraction Matrix......Page 237
Watson Transform......Page 238
Debye Series......Page 239
First Term of the Debye Expansion......Page 240
Coherent and Incoherent Diffraction Optics......Page 241
Optical Transfer Function......Page 242
Calculation of Diffraction Integrals by Expansion of the Field in Gaussian Beams......Page 243
References......Page 244
Glossary......Page 245
Faraday Effect......Page 246
Principle of Polarization-Dependent (Free Space) Optical Isolators......Page 247
Principle of Polarization-Independent (In-line) Optical Isolators......Page 248
Performance Evaluation of Optical Isolators......Page 250
Principle of Optical Circulators......Page 252
Principle of a Polarization-Independent Full Circulator......Page 254
Design and Principle of Compact Optical Circulators......Page 255
Reflective Design of Optical Isolators and Circulators......Page 257
References......Page 258
Glossary......Page 259
Waveguide Fabrication by Flame Hydrolysis Deposition......Page 260
N ×N Star Coupler......Page 261
Principle of Operation and Fundamental Characteristics......Page 262
Flat Spectral Response AWG......Page 263
Uniform-Loss and Cyclic-Frequency (ULCF) AWG......Page 264
Athermal AWG......Page 265
Phase Error Compensation of AWG......Page 267
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer......Page 268
Lattice-Form Programmable Dispersion Equalizers......Page 269
Hybrid Integration Technology Using PLC Platforms......Page 271
References......Page 273
Glossary......Page 275
Image Capture......Page 276
Image Display......Page 277
AgX Crystals......Page 278
Gelatin......Page 279
Latent Image (LI) Formation......Page 280
Step-by-Step Mechanism......Page 281
Chemical Sensitization......Page 282
Spectral Sensitization Mechanisms......Page 283
Development......Page 284
Mechanisms......Page 285
Fine-Grain Development......Page 286
Obtaining a Positive......Page 287
Basic Principles......Page 288
Reversal Processes......Page 289
Further Details......Page 290
One-Step Black-and-White Photography......Page 291
The SX-70 System and Its Refinements......Page 292
Thermally Processed Silver Materials......Page 293
Processes......Page 294
Development......Page 295
Electronic Applications......Page 296
Resolution......Page 297
Image Capture Devices......Page 298
State-of-the-Art......Page 299
Electrophotography......Page 300
Transfer Xerography: Equipment and Processes......Page 301
Xerographic Materials......Page 304
Direct Xerography......Page 307
Color Xerography......Page 308
Electronic Paper......Page 309
Printer Types......Page 310
Materials......Page 311
Thermal Printing......Page 312
Transfer Thermography......Page 313
Laser Thermography......Page 314
References......Page 315
Introduction......Page 317
Photonic Bandgap (PBG) Formation......Page 319
Two-Dimensional PBG Materials......Page 321
Two-Dimensional Photonic Crystal Devices......Page 322
Synthesis of Three-Dimensional PBG Materials......Page 323
Layer-by-Layer Structures......Page 324
Quantum and Nonlinear Optics in Three-Dimensional PBG Materials......Page 325
Low-Threshold Resonant Nonlinear Optics......Page 326
Collective Switching and Transistor Effects......Page 327
Outlook......Page 328
References......Page 329
Introduction......Page 330
The Acousto-Optic Effect and Its Plane-Wave Scattering Model......Page 331
Beam Deflection......Page 335
Spatial Transfer Function......Page 336
One-Dimensional Spatial Filtering......Page 338
Two-Dimensional Spatial Filtering......Page 339
Fundamentals of Holography......Page 340
Electronic Holography by Acousto-Optics......Page 342
References......Page 0