Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, 3e, Environmental Science

Environmental Science
......Page 1
Glossary......Page 2
Overview of Drinking Water Sources......Page 3
Protection of Source Water......Page 4
Filtration......Page 6
Slow Sand Filters......Page 7
Corrosion Control......Page 8
Membrane Filtration Technology......Page 9
Chlorine......Page 10
Disinfection By-Products......Page 11
Ozone......Page 12
Ultraviolet (UV) Irradiation Technology......Page 13
Cryptosporidium......Page 14
United States Regulations......Page 16
General requirements......Page 17
Total Coliform Rule......Page 18
WHO Regulations......Page 19
References......Page 21
Glossary......Page 23
Introduction......Page 24
Composition of the Earth’s Crust......Page 25
Carbon Chemistry......Page 26
Weathering......Page 28
Formation of Soils......Page 30
Reversal of Weathering Reactions......Page 31
Composition and Structure......Page 32
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide......Page 33
Nitrogen......Page 34
Minor Constituents......Page 35
Change in Atmospheric Composition over Time......Page 36
Analyses......Page 37
Streams and Lakes......Page 38
Groundwater and the Vadose Zone......Page 40
Seawater......Page 41
Effects of Human Activity......Page 42
Acid Rain......Page 43
Ozone in the Stratosphere......Page 44
Disposal of Chemical Waste......Page 45
Agrochemicals and Non-point-source Pollution......Page 47
See also the Following Articles......Page 48
References......Page 49
Glossary......Page 50
Significance of Environmental Chemical Determinations......Page 51
Determination of Total Elements or Total Related Substances......Page 52
Determination of Specific Substances......Page 53
The Broad Spectrum (BS) Strategy......Page 54
Remote Laboratory Analyses and Field Analyses......Page 55
Development and Documentation of Analytical Methods......Page 56
Methods Published or Referenced in Government Agency Regulations......Page 57
Semivolatile Analytes......Page 58
Condensed Phase Samples......Page 59
Bulk Vapor Phase Samples......Page 60
Processing of Samples Before Determination of the Analytes......Page 61
Chromatographic Analytical Methods......Page 62
High Performance Ion Exchange Chromatography......Page 63
Chromatography Detectors......Page 64
Atomic Emission......Page 65
References......Page 66
Glossary......Page 67
Introduction to Environmental Observation and Forecasting Systems......Page 68
A Pilot Estuarine Environmental Observation and Forecasting System......Page 69
Observation Network......Page 71
Numerical codes......Page 73
Bathymetry......Page 74
Quality Controls......Page 75
Modeling Products......Page 77
Information and Visualization Infrastructure......Page 79
Applications......Page 80
Paradigms in Training and Education......Page 81
See also the Following Articles......Page 82
References......Page 83
Introduction......Page 84
Thorium series (4n) decay chain......Page 86
Military Sources......Page 87
Medical Sources......Page 88
Unconsolidated Materials......Page 89
The Atmosphere......Page 90
The Biosphere......Page 91
Concepts of Radiation Dose......Page 92
Plants......Page 94
Birds......Page 95
Mining and Milling......Page 96
Emergency Releases......Page 97
Low-Level Waste......Page 98
See also the Following Articles......Page 99
References......Page 100
Glossary......Page 101
The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management......Page 103
Reproduction......Page 104
Development and Growth......Page 106
Determination of Toxicity......Page 108
Acute Toxicity Determination......Page 109
Incipient Lethal Levels......Page 110
Water Quality Standards......Page 111
Acute Effects......Page 112
Acute/Chronic Ratios......Page 113
The Two-Number Criterion......Page 114
Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions......Page 115
Incorporation of Interactions into Water Quality Guidelines......Page 116
Conditioning and Acclimation......Page 117
Interactions between Toxic Substances......Page 118
Noncarcinogenic Effects......Page 120
Application to Cadmium......Page 121
Carcinogenic Effects......Page 123
Commentary......Page 124
References......Page 125
Glossary......Page 126
Geologic Materials......Page 127
Liquids......Page 129
Hydraulic conductivity......Page 130
Hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated media......Page 131
Aqueous-Phase Transport......Page 132
Aqueous Immiscible Flow......Page 133
Mechanical Considerations......Page 134
Types of Liners......Page 135
Liner Systems for Solid Waste Disposal......Page 136
Layering in traditional covers......Page 137
Design considerations for traditional covers......Page 138
Alternative Covers......Page 139
Remediation Procedure......Page 140
Remediation Processes......Page 141
Vertical containment technologies......Page 142
Horizontal containment technologies......Page 143
Enhanced removal technologies......Page 144
References......Page 145
Glossary......Page 147
Permitting of Hazardous Waste Incinerators......Page 148
Boiler and Industrial Furnace Regulation (BIF)......Page 149
MACT Standards for Lightweight Aggregate Kilns......Page 150
Liquid Injection Incineration......Page 151
Combustion air system......Page 152
Aqueous waste systems with ash......Page 153
Rotary Kiln Incinerator......Page 154
Feed systems......Page 155
Fixed Hearth Incinerator......Page 156
Waste Heat Boiler......Page 158
Cement Kiln Incineration......Page 159
Process description......Page 160
Quench System......Page 161
Wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP)......Page 162
Packed bed absorber towers......Page 164
Fabric filters (FF)—baghouses......Page 165
Spray dryer absorber (SDA)......Page 166
References......Page 168
Glossary......Page 169
Air Pollutants requiring control......Page 170
Gases and Vapors......Page 171
Adverse Effects on Materials and Structures......Page 174
Visibility Reduction......Page 175
Adverse Effects on Human Health......Page 176
History......Page 177
Engineering Control Methods......Page 178
Control of Mobile-Source Emissions......Page 179
Regulatory Control......Page 181
Air Quality Criteria and Standards......Page 182
Emission Standards and Permits......Page 183
References......Page 184
Glossary......Page 185
Introduction......Page 186
Sources and Inventories......Page 187
Determinants of Airborne Concentrations of Primary Pollutants......Page 190
Airborne Concentrations and Trends......Page 191
Air Pollution Chemistry......Page 192
Airborne Concentrations and Trends......Page 193
Long-Range Transport......Page 194
Effects on Human Health......Page 196
Effects on Vegetation......Page 197
Legislative Strategies for Local Air Quality Management......Page 198
References......Page 200
Glossary......Page 202
Introduction......Page 203
Combustion......Page 204
Nuclear Reactions......Page 206
Processes Related to Mineral Recovery and Processing......Page 207
Industrial Processes......Page 208
Agriculture......Page 209
Domestic Operations......Page 211
Natural Structure and Chemical Composition......Page 212
Lower Atmosphere Effects......Page 213
Ozone Layer......Page 214
Greenhouse Effect......Page 215
Natural Structure and Chemistry......Page 216
Perturbation of Redox Balance......Page 217
The Biosphere......Page 218
Toxic Wastes......Page 219
References......Page 220
Radioactive Waste......Page 221
Disposal Alternatives......Page 222
Public Perception and Acceptance......Page 223
Seals and Closures......Page 224
Step-Wise Approach to Characterization and Performance Prediction......Page 225
United States—Waste Isolation Pilot Plant......Page 226
Finland......Page 227
See also the Following Articles......Page 228
References......Page 229
Glossary......Page 230
Hydrogeologic Settings......Page 231
Source Type and Magnitude......Page 232
Extent of Subsurface Contamination......Page 233
Chemical......Page 238
Remediation of Soil and Water Contamination......Page 239
Soil (Vadose) Zone Methods......Page 240
Groundwater (Saturated) Zone Methods......Page 241
References......Page 242
Glossary......Page 244
Environmental Spheres and Phases......Page 245
Interphase Transfer and Chemical Cycling......Page 247
Thermodynamic vs. Kinetic Factors......Page 248
Distributions Involving Real Environmental Phase......Page 249
Correlation with Partitioning Equilibria Involving Pure Phases......Page 250
Mechanistic Understanding of Environmental Phase Equilibria......Page 251
Environmental Transport Processes......Page 252
Turbulent or Eddy Diffusion......Page 253
Transport Processes Across Phase Boundaries......Page 254
Chemical Transformation Processes......Page 256
Photochemical Transformation Processes......Page 257
Biological Transformation Processes......Page 258
Field Measurements of Environmental Chemical Fate and Transport......Page 259
References......Page 260
Glossary......Page 261
The Role of Water Quality......Page 262
Movement Of Water In The Hydrosphere......Page 263
The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 264
Overland Flow......Page 266
Infiltration and Groundwater Flow......Page 267
Storm Hydrographs......Page 268
Water Quality......Page 269
Physical Characteristics of Water......Page 270
Solids......Page 271
Color......Page 272
Chemical Characteristics of Water—Inorganic Matter......Page 273
Major anions......Page 274
Water quality of rivers and groundwaters......Page 275
Chemical Characteristics of Water—Organic Matter......Page 276
Measurement of organic concentration......Page 277
Chemical Characteristics of Water—Gases......Page 278
Classifications of Microorganisms in Water......Page 279
Impacts of Microbial Growth on Water Quality......Page 280
Deterioration of Water Quality......Page 281
Water Quality Modification......Page 282
Removal of suspended solids......Page 283
Organic matter removal......Page 284
Biological wastewater treatment......Page 285
Tertiary wastewater treatment......Page 286
Drinking Water Quality......Page 287
Wastewater Discharge Standards......Page 288
Conservation as a Management Strategy......Page 289
References......Page 290