Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, 3e, Computer Software

Cover
......Page 1
Glossary......Page 2
Brief Description......Page 3
The First Dartmouth Basic......Page 4
A Number is a Number is a Number; that is, there is Only One Kind of Number in Basic......Page 5
Basic Should be Blank Insensitive; That is, a User Should be able to Type in a Program without Regard to Blank Spaces......Page 6
Strings are Added......Page 7
Overlays are Added......Page 8
Personal Computers Appear......Page 9
Multiple Statements on a Line......Page 10
Strings Proliferate......Page 11
Structured Programming......Page 12
Subroutines......Page 13
BASIC Loses Favor......Page 14
Standard BASIC......Page 15
Basic as a Major Application Language......Page 17
References......Page 18
Glossary......Page 19
The Evolution of C and C++......Page 20
Data Types......Page 21
Operators......Page 22
Control Structures......Page 25
Procedures......Page 27
The C Preprocessor......Page 28
Operator-Rich Syntax......Page 29
Explicit Pointer Usage......Page 30
Key C++ Features......Page 31
Function Overloading......Page 32
Classes......Page 33
Inheritance......Page 34
Exceptions......Page 35
Namespaces......Page 36
Standard Template Library......Page 37
Reference......Page 38
Background and Motivation......Page 39
Viruses, Worms, and so Forth......Page 40
Prevention and Detection......Page 41
Conclusion......Page 42
References......Page 43
Glossary......Page 44
Algorithms and Programs......Page 45
Algorithm Design......Page 47
Performance Analysis and Measurement......Page 49
Analysis......Page 50
Measurement......Page 52
Lower Bounds......Page 53
Np-Hard and Np-Complete Problems......Page 54
Nondeterminism......Page 55
NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problems......Page 56
Approximation Algorithms......Page 57
Other Heuristics......Page 58
See also the Following Articles......Page 59
References......Page 60
Glossary......Page 61
Introduction......Page 62
Cryptosystems: A Mathematical Definition......Page 63
Types of Attacks and Attackers......Page 64
System Attacks......Page 65
Electronic Codebook Mode (ECB)......Page 66
Counter Mode (CTR)......Page 67
Data Encryption Standard (DES)......Page 68
Differential cryptanalysis......Page 69
Advanced Encryption Standard......Page 70
Public Key Cryptography......Page 71
Probabilistic Encryption......Page 72
An RSA Example......Page 73
Re-encryption attacks and safe primes......Page 74
Key Distribution Andmanagement......Page 75
Public Key Infrastructures......Page 76
References......Page 77
Glossary......Page 78
The Data Mining Process......Page 79
Rule Induction......Page 80
Discovery of Interestingness......Page 81
Uncertainty Handling......Page 82
Inferencing Rules......Page 83
Neural Networks......Page 84
Statistical Techniques......Page 85
Fuzzy Logic......Page 86
Data Manipulation Techniques......Page 87
Advanced Database Technology......Page 88
Distributed Processing......Page 89
Distributed Data Mining......Page 90
Security and Privacy Aspects of Data Mining......Page 91
Business......Page 92
Science......Page 93
Future Developments......Page 94
References......Page 95
Glossary......Page 96
Memory Allocation and Algorithms......Page 98
Hierarchical Data Structures......Page 100
Linear and Indexed Structures......Page 101
Searching and Sorting Techniques......Page 103
Searching: Algorithms and Data Structures......Page 104
Example (Pictures)......Page 105
Randomness, Order, and Selectivity......Page 106
References......Page 108
Glossary......Page 109
Data Models......Page 110
The Relational Data Model......Page 111
Object-Oriented Data Models......Page 112
Object-Relational Data Models......Page 115
Relational Database Languages......Page 116
Object-Oriented Database Languages......Page 117
Deductive Databases......Page 118
Active Databases......Page 120
Distributed Databases......Page 121
Data Warehouses......Page 123
References......Page 124
Glossary......Page 125
Solution Landscapes......Page 126
Evolutionary Algorithms......Page 128
Genetic Algorithms......Page 129
Genetic Programming......Page 130
Initial Population......Page 131
Evolutionary Programming......Page 132
Evolutionary Strategies......Page 133
Grammatical Evolution......Page 134
Simulated Annealing......Page 135
Memetic Algorithms......Page 136
References......Page 137
Glossary......Page 138
Introduction......Page 139
Quantization......Page 140
Compression......Page 141
Difference Coding and Transform Coding......Page 142
Recent Trends......Page 143
Grayscale Modification......Page 144
Blur Reduction......Page 146
Noise Cleaning......Page 148
Deconvolution......Page 149
Reconstruction......Page 150
Template Matching......Page 153
Image Registration......Page 154
Stereomapping and Range Sensing......Page 155
Image Sequence Analysis......Page 157
Shape from Shading......Page 159
Shape from Shape......Page 160
Feature Detection......Page 161
Region Extraction......Page 163
Geometry-Based Decomposition......Page 166
Subset Representation......Page 167
Properties and Relations......Page 168
Relational Structures and Recognition......Page 169
Knowledge-Based Recognition Systems......Page 170
Meshes......Page 171
References......Page 172
Glossary......Page 174
Variety of Applications, Ties with the Computer Technology. Vast Bibliography. Packages of Subroutines......Page 175
General and Special Linear Systems. Direct and Iterative Methods. Sensitivity to Errors......Page 176
Solving a Differential Equation......Page 177
Hitchcock Transportation Problem. Linear Programming Problem......Page 178
Approximating Data by Curves. Overdetermined Linear Systems. Normal Equations, Reduction to Linear Programming Problems......Page 179
Solving Triangular Systems by Back Substitution......Page 181
Forward Elimination Stage of Gaussian Elimination......Page 182
Gaussian Elimination Performed with Finite Precision. Pivoting Policies. Complete Pivoting for Singular Systems......Page 184
Block Matrix Algorithms......Page 185
Some Modifications of LU Factorization. Choleski’s Factorization. Block Factorizations of a Matrix......Page 186
Error and Residual Vectors. Vector and Matrix Norms. Condition Number......Page 187
Sensitivity of Algorithms for Linear Systems to Round-Off Errors......Page 188
Application to Overdetermined Systems......Page 189
Computing the Minimum 2-Norm Solution to an Underdetermined System......Page 190
Asymptotic and Practical Accelerations of Solving General Linear Systems......Page 191
Banded, Block-Banded, Banded-Symmetric, and Symmetric Systems......Page 192
Toeplitz, Hankel, and Vandermonde Systems and Their Correlation to Polynomial Operations......Page 193
Some Policies of Pivoting for Sparse Systems......Page 194
Iterative Algorithms for Sparse and Special Dense Linear Systems......Page 195
Influence of the Development of Vector and Parallel Computers on Solving Linear Systems......Page 197
References......Page 198
Glossary......Page 199
Where Operating Systems are Required......Page 200
Functions of an Operating System......Page 201
Starting Up......Page 202
Simple Process Management......Page 203
Managing process execution......Page 204
Scheduling......Page 205
Processor scheduling......Page 206
Real-time considerations.......Page 207
Contention for resources......Page 208
Single application processes......Page 209
Simple paging......Page 210
Combined segmentation and paging......Page 211
General Introduction......Page 212
Contiguous space allocation methods......Page 214
Indexed block chaining......Page 215
Organizing Data for Access......Page 216
Two-level directories......Page 217
Data Protection and Integrity......Page 218
Delay and Failure......Page 219
References......Page 220
See also the Following Articles......Page 221
Glossary......Page 222
Application Areas......Page 223
Closed-World Assumption......Page 224
Conjunctions......Page 225
Unification and Logical Variables......Page 226
Horn Clauses......Page 227
Lists......Page 228
Example: Permutations......Page 229
Position and Associativity......Page 230
True and Fail......Page 231
Repeat......Page 232
Input/Output for Terms......Page 233
Arithmetic......Page 234
Manipulating Structured Terms......Page 235
Term Comparison......Page 236
Arguments of Nonterminals and Mixing Grammar Rules and Prolog Code......Page 237
A Grammar Example......Page 238
Meta-level Programming......Page 239
Introduction......Page 240
Imposing Constraints on Variables......Page 241
Labeling Domain Variables......Page 242
Rectangle with Maximum Area......Page 243
References......Page 244
Glossary......Page 246
Activity Networks......Page 248
The Need for Defined Development Life Cycles......Page 249
The Incremental Model......Page 250
Rapid Application Development......Page 251
Creating the Project Team......Page 252
Configuration Management......Page 253
Prioritizing Risk......Page 254
A Taxonomy of Software Effort Estimation Methods......Page 255
COCOMO: An Example of an Algorithmic Model......Page 256
Function Points......Page 257
Reviews, Inspections, and Walkthroughs......Page 258
Quality Plans......Page 259
References......Page 260
Glossary......Page 261
System Model......Page 262
Interface Definition......Page 263
Computational Model......Page 264
Formal Modeling and Verification......Page 265
Introduction......Page 266
Fault Tolerance with Global Time......Page 267
Fault Tolerance without Global Time......Page 268
Conclusion......Page 269
References......Page 270
Introduction......Page 271
Agreeing Requirements......Page 272
Requirements to Elicit......Page 273
Enterprise Modeling......Page 274
Context and Groundwork......Page 275
Summary and Conclusions......Page 276
References......Page 277
Glossary......Page 279
Historical Perspective......Page 280
Board-to-Board......Page 281
Smart Imaging and Vision Chips......Page 282
Monolithic vs. Hybrid......Page 283
Optical Output......Page 284
Flip-chip bonding.......Page 285
Wafer fusion.......Page 286
Performance......Page 287
Functionality......Page 288
Fabricated smart pixel arrays......Page 289
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems MEMS......Page 291
Redundancy Based on Reconfiguration......Page 292
References......Page 293
Glossary......Page 294
A Brief History of Software Engineering......Page 295
Application Software......Page 296
The Software Life Cycle......Page 297
The Waterfall Model......Page 298
Spiral Model......Page 299
Process Quality......Page 300
Requirements Engineering......Page 301
Software Architecture......Page 302
Software Design and Specification......Page 303
Testing......Page 304
Reviews and Inspections......Page 305
Management of Software Engineering......Page 306
References......Page 307
Glossary......Page 308
Software Maintenance......Page 309
Models and Process in Software Maintenance......Page 310
Level 1, The System Level......Page 311
Level 2, The Function Level......Page 313
Level 3, The Data Level......Page 314
General Recommendations......Page 316
References......Page 317
Glossary......Page 318
Usage and Reliability Modeling......Page 319
Purpose......Page 320
Algorithmic Model......Page 321
Grammar Model......Page 322
State Hierarchy Model......Page 323
Derivation of Usage Data......Page 324
Failure and Test Data......Page 325
Definitions......Page 326
Time between Failure Models......Page 327
Failure Count Models......Page 328
Reliability Demonstration......Page 329
Purpose......Page 330
Summary......Page 331
References......Page 332
The Input Domain......Page 333
The Internal Structure......Page 334
The Development of Testing Methods......Page 335
A General Strategy for Testing......Page 336
System Testing......Page 337
Functional Testing Techniques......Page 338
References......Page 339
Glossary......Page 340
The Way the Web Works......Page 341
Universal Resource Identifier URL......Page 343
HyperText Transfer Protocol HTTP......Page 345
HyperText Markup Language HTML......Page 347
References......Page 350