Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, 3e, Measurements Techniques and Instrumentation

Cover......Page 1
Glossary......Page 2
Cie System of Color Specification......Page 3
Electronic Instruments and Composition......Page 0
Imaginary Primaries......Page 4
Chromaticity Diagram......Page 5
Color Rendering......Page 7
Intermediate Quality of Fluorescent Lighting......Page 8
Color-Rendering Index......Page 10
Specular and Diffuse Reflectance......Page 11
Measuring Diffuse Surface Reflectance......Page 12
Chromaticity of an Object......Page 13
Fluorescence......Page 15
Optimal Colors......Page 16
Physical Basis of Surface Color......Page 17
Other Causes of Spectrally Selective Reflection......Page 18
Color Difference and Color Order......Page 19
Color-Difference Data......Page 21
CIELUV Color Difference Formulas......Page 22
Arrangement of Colors......Page 23
Physiological Basis of Color Vision......Page 24
See also the following articles......Page 26
Glossary......Page 27
International Activities......Page 28
Methods of Evaluating Data......Page 29
Dissemination of Critical Data......Page 34
See also the Following Articles......Page 38
Glossary......Page 39
Temperature......Page 40
Quantum Statistics......Page 41
Insulators......Page 43
Metals......Page 45
Liquid 4He and Liquid 3He......Page 46
Superfluid Properties of Liquid 4He......Page 47
Normal Liquid 3He......Page 52
Superfluid Properties of Liquid 3He......Page 53
Evaporation Cryostats......Page 55
Helium Dilution Refrigerators......Page 56
Pomeranchuk Refrigeration......Page 57
Magnetic Cooling......Page 58
Thermometry......Page 59
Cryogenic Applications......Page 60
References......Page 61
Glossary......Page 62
Standards and Absolute Measurements......Page 63
Substitution......Page 64
Derivation......Page 65
Digital Measurements......Page 67
External Influences......Page 69
Construction Errors......Page 71
Loading or Insertion Error......Page 72
Voltages......Page 73
Currents......Page 77
Power Measurement......Page 79
Resistance Measurement......Page 81
Capacitance and Inductance......Page 82
Waveform Monitoring......Page 84
Waveform Recording......Page 88
Digital Frequency and Time Measurements......Page 90
Spectrum Analysis......Page 92
Nonelectrical Quantities......Page 93
Reactance Change......Page 94
Thermoelectric......Page 95
Instrument Loading......Page 96
Bus-Connected Measurement Systems......Page 97
See also the Following Articles......Page 98
Principles of Flow Visualization Techniques......Page 99
Flow Visualization by Tracer Material......Page 100
Visualization by Refractive Index Changes......Page 102
Mechanical Interaction......Page 104
References......Page 105
Glossary......Page 106
Introduction......Page 107
Geodesy and Other Disciplines and Sciences......Page 108
Positioning......Page 109
Point Positioning......Page 110
Relative Positioning......Page 111
Treatment of Errors in Positions......Page 113
Coordinate Transformations......Page 115
Origin of the Earth’s Gravity Field......Page 116
Gravity Potential......Page 118
Magnitude of Gravity......Page 119
Direction of Gravity......Page 120
Transformations between Field Parameters......Page 121
Stokes’s Geodetic Boundary Value Problem......Page 122
Molodenskij’s Geodetic Boundary Value Problem......Page 123
Temporal Changes in Coordinate Systems......Page 124
Temporal Changes in Positions......Page 125
Satellite Techniques......Page 127
Satellite Positioning......Page 128
Gravitational Field Studies by Satellites......Page 130
See also the Following Articles......Page 131
Glossary......Page 132
Declustering......Page 133
Variogram Modeling......Page 134
Simple Kriging......Page 135
Smoothing......Page 136
Indicator Methods......Page 137
Environmental......Page 138
Petroleum......Page 139
See also the Following Articles......Page 142
Definition of the Global Gravity Field......Page 143
Method of Measurement......Page 145
Applications......Page 147
References......Page 149
Glossary......Page 150
Optical Systems......Page 151
Spectrometers......Page 152
Transmission Electron Microscope......Page 153
X-ray Spectroscopy......Page 154
Auger/ESCA Spectroscopy......Page 155
Observable Optical Phenomena......Page 156
Microchemical Tests......Page 158
See also the Following Articles......Page 159
References......Page 160
Glossary......Page 161
Measurement of Length......Page 162
Measurements of Very Small Changes in Length......Page 163
Tests of Aspheric Surfaces......Page 164
Studies of Refractive Index Fields......Page 165
Interferometric Sensors......Page 166
Gravitational-Wave Interferometers......Page 167
Phase-Conjugate Interferometers and Squeezed Light......Page 168
See Also the Following Articles......Page 169
Glossary......Page 170
Basic Principles......Page 171
Secular Variation Effects......Page 172
Recent Anthropogenic 14C Effects......Page 174
Measurement Techniques......Page 175
See also the Following Articles......Page 176
History of Development of Radiometric Dating Methods......Page 177
Principles of Radiometric Dating......Page 178
The K–Ar Method......Page 179
The 40Ar/39Ar Method......Page 180
The Rb–Sr Method......Page 181
The Sm–Nd, Lu–Hf, and Re–Os Methods......Page 182
The U, Th, Pb Methods......Page 183
The Radiocarbon Method......Page 184
Accuracy of Radiometric Dating......Page 185
References......Page 186
Glossary......Page 187
Radiopharmaceutical......Page 188
Gamma Camera......Page 189
Tomography......Page 191
Quantitation......Page 192
Instrumentation......Page 193
References......Page 195
History......Page 196
Electron–Optical Performance......Page 197
Detection Limits......Page 198
Secondary Electrons......Page 199
Voltage Contrast......Page 200
Magnetic Contrast......Page 201
Atomic Number Contrast......Page 202
Magnetic Contrast......Page 203
Other Important Interactions......Page 204
Cathodoluminescence......Page 205
References......Page 206
Glossary......Page 207
Astronomical Seeing and Resolution......Page 208
Speckle Camera Requirements and Technology......Page 209
Application to High-Resolution Imaging......Page 210
Astronomical Results from Speckle Interferometry......Page 212
The Future of High-Resolution Astronomy......Page 213
References......Page 214
Glossary......Page 215
Thermodynamic Basis......Page 216
Oxygen Isotopic Composition of the Oceanic Crust......Page 218
Oxygen Isotopic Composition of the Continental Crust......Page 219
Processes Affecting the Oxygen Isotopic Composition of Igneous Rocks......Page 221
Controls on the Oxygen Isotope Composition of Seawater......Page 222
Meteoric Water Cycle......Page 224
Subsurface Fluids......Page 225
Carbon in the Lithosphere......Page 227
Global Cycles and Secular Change......Page 228
The Marine Record: Tertiary and Quaternary Oxygen Isotopes......Page 230
Geologic Variation......Page 231
Anthropogenic Forcing......Page 232
References......Page 233
Glossary......Page 235
Concept of Ensembles......Page 236
Macroscopic State of Quantum Systems......Page 237
Classical Systems......Page 240
Canonical Ensemble......Page 241
Quantum Systems......Page 242
Isobaric–Isothermal Ensemble......Page 243
Quantum Systems......Page 244
Grand Canonical Ensemble......Page 245
Quantum Systems......Page 246
Isomorphism between Information Theory and Statistical Mechanics......Page 247
Classical Version......Page 248
Statistical Mechanical Basis for Equilibrium Thermodynamics......Page 250
Liouville Description of Time Evolution......Page 254
Quantum Systems......Page 256
Phenomenological Equations of Motion......Page 258
Classical Brownian Motion Theory......Page 260
Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics (Phenomenological Theory of Irreversible Processes)......Page 263
Continuous Systems......Page 264
Discrete Composite Systems......Page 266
Statistical Mechanical Basis for Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics......Page 267
Spatially Independent Thermodynamic Coordinates......Page 268
Spatially Dependent Thermodynamic Coordinates......Page 274
Spatially Independent Properties......Page 278
Spatially Dependent Properties......Page 281
Response to External Disturbances......Page 282
Mori–Zwanzig Projection Operator Formalism......Page 285
Maximum Entropy Approach to Nonequilibrium Processes......Page 287
Spatially Independent Thermodynamic Coordinates......Page 288
Spatially Dependent Thermodynamic Coordinates......Page 291
Dual Lanczos Transformation Theory......Page 294
Evolution of Dynamical Vectors......Page 295
Decomposition of System Dynamics......Page 296
Dual Lanczos Transformations......Page 297
Projected Transition Operators and Generalized Polynomials......Page 298
Extraction and Utilization of Dynamically Embedded Information......Page 299
Memory Function Hierarchies, Continued Fractions, and Pad´e Approximants......Page 303
See also the Following Articles......Page 304
Introduction......Page 306
Early History of Steam Power and Steam Tables......Page 307
Standards for General and Scientific Use......Page 308
Standards for Industrial Use......Page 309
Future Directions......Page 311
References......Page 312
Glossary......Page 313
Stability......Page 314
Equivalent Dose Determination......Page 315
Single Aliquot Methods......Page 316
Authenticity Testing......Page 317
References......Page 318
Glossary......Page 319
The Evolution of Time and Frequency Standards......Page 320
Time Scales and the International Definition of the Second......Page 322
Accuracy......Page 323
Stability......Page 324
Time and Frequency Standards......Page 327
Quartz Oscillators......Page 328
Cesium Oscillators......Page 329
Hydrogen Masers......Page 330
Future Standards......Page 331
One-Way Method......Page 332
HF Radio Signals (IncludingWWVand WWVH)......Page 333
LF Radio Signals (Including WWVB)......Page 334
Global Positioning System (GPS)......Page 335
Internet Time Signals......Page 336
References......Page 337
Glossary......Page 338
More Complex Systems......Page 339
Wave Equation......Page 340
Transducer Beams......Page 341
Attenuation......Page 342
Sonar Equation......Page 343
Common Transducers......Page 344
Pulsed methods......Page 345
Common Ways of Using Pulsed-Ultrasound......Page 346
Sources of High Power CW Ultrasound......Page 348
Stringed Instruments......Page 349
Percussive Instruments......Page 350
Transducer Arrays......Page 351
Medical Ultrasonics......Page 352
Acoustic Emission......Page 353
Marine Sonar and Sonar in Animals......Page 354
Processing Technology......Page 355
References......Page 356
Glossary......Page 357
General Description of the Vacuum Arc......Page 358
Arc Ignition......Page 359
Cathode Spots......Page 360
Interelectrode Phenomena......Page 361
Arc Stability......Page 362
High-Power Vacuum Interrupter......Page 364
Triggered Vacuum Gap......Page 366
Vacuum Fuse......Page 367
References......Page 368