Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology, 3e, Atmospheric Science

Cover
......Page 1
Glossary......Page 2
The Source......Page 3
Uses of the Models......Page 4
Adiabatic Lapse Rate and Potential Temperature......Page 5
Turner’s Stability Classification......Page 6
Unstable Conditions......Page 8
Unstable and Stable Air......Page 9
Gaussian Plume Model for Continuous Sources......Page 10
Taylor’s Theorem......Page 11
Some Approximations......Page 12
The Accuracy of the Gaussian Plume Model......Page 13
Diffusion Coefficients......Page 14
The Effects of Density Differences on Atmospheric Diffusion......Page 15
Plume Rise Formulas......Page 17
Instantaneous Puff or Dispersion Model......Page 18
Elevated Dense Gas Releases......Page 19
Long Time Period Averaged Concentration......Page 20
Plume Trapping......Page 21
Designing a Chimney to Limit Ground-Level Concentrations......Page 22
Stable—Fanning Plume......Page 23
To Prevent Building Downwash......Page 24
The New Models......Page 25
Forced Convection Part of the Surface Layer......Page 26
References......Page 27
Glossary......Page 29
Introduction......Page 30
Atmospheric Turbulence and Mean Motions......Page 31
Turbulent Kinetic Energy......Page 32
Turbulence in the Atmospheric Surface Layer......Page 33
Turbulence in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer......Page 34
Spectrum of Atmospheric Turbulence......Page 38
Atmospheric Turbulence and Modeling......Page 39
Turbulent Dispersion of Air Pollutants......Page 40
References......Page 41
Glossary......Page 42
Auroral Zone......Page 43
Discrete Form......Page 44
Visible, EUV, UV, and IR Emissions......Page 45
Dynamics of the Aurora and Auroral Substorms......Page 46
Solar Wind–Magnetosphere Generator......Page 48
Auroral Discharge Circuit......Page 49
Solar Activities and the Aurora......Page 50
Coronal Holes and Auroral Activity......Page 51
References......Page 52
Glossary......Page 53
Background......Page 54
The Atmospheric Carbon Cycle......Page 55
The Terrestrial Carbon Cycle......Page 56
The Oceanic Carbon Cycle......Page 59
The Geologic Carbon Cycle......Page 60
Unraveling the Contemporary Carbon Budget......Page 61
Interannual Variability of the Contemporary Carbon Cycle......Page 63
Climate Interactions......Page 64
References......Page 65
Glossary......Page 66
Subdisciplines of Climatology......Page 67
Solar Source......Page 69
Energy Budget......Page 70
Regional Climatology......Page 71
Microclimatology......Page 74
Climate and General-Circulation Models......Page 75
Past Climates......Page 76
Future Climates......Page 77
References......Page 78
Glossary......Page 79
Water Vapor in the Atmosphere......Page 80
Formation of Cloud Droplets......Page 81
Growth through Droplet Collisions......Page 83
Observations of Droplets......Page 84
Ice Nuclei and Primary Ice Crystals......Page 85
Observations of the Growth Mechanisms of ICE Particles......Page 86
Physics of the Growth of Ice Particles......Page 87
Growth of Ice Crystals by Diffusion......Page 88
Growth by Droplet Collection (Accretion)......Page 90
Summary of In-Cloud Measurements......Page 91
Effects of Clouds on Climate......Page 92
Cloud Seeding......Page 93
Concluding Remarks......Page 94
References......Page 95
Glossary......Page 96
Sea-Breeze Front......Page 97
Cyclogenesis......Page 98
Fog and Stratiform Clouds......Page 99
Land and Sea Breezes......Page 100
Low-Level Jets......Page 103
Offshore-Directed Winds over the Gulf of Alaska......Page 104
Mechanical Internal Boundary Layer......Page 106
Stable Internal Boundary Layer......Page 107
Wind–Wave Interaction......Page 108
Hurricanes......Page 109
References......Page 113
Glossary......Page 115
Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change......Page 116
Marine......Page 117
Hemispheric and Global Time Series......Page 118
Accuracy of the Hemispheric and Global Series......Page 119
Patterns of Recent Change......Page 120
Daily Temperature Extremes in Long European Series......Page 123
The Last 150 Years in the Context of the Last 1000 Years......Page 125
Longer-Term Series......Page 131
Changes in Daily Extremes......Page 132
Climate Change Detection and Attribution......Page 133
References......Page 134
Glossary......Page 135
Historical Background and Simple Models......Page 136
General Circulation Model Description and Experimental Procedure......Page 137
Experiments with Idealized Geography......Page 138
Experiments with Realistic Geography......Page 143
Comparison with Other Modeling Groups......Page 149
Coupled Air-Sea Models......Page 150
Committed Warming......Page 152
Summary......Page 154
Appendix: Illustration of Gcm Procedure......Page 155
References......Page 156
Properties of the Atmosphere......Page 157
Scattering......Page 159
Turbulence......Page 161
Modulation Transfer Function......Page 162
Long-Exposure and Short-Exposure MTFs......Page 163
Environmental Factors on Turbulence......Page 164
Variation with Altitude......Page 165
MCF......Page 166
Wavelength dependence......Page 167
Overall Resolution Through the Atmosphere......Page 168
MTF......Page 169
Techniques to Correct for Atmospheric Blur......Page 171
References......Page 173
Glossary......Page 175
Ionospheric Environment......Page 176
Photochemistry......Page 177
Plasma Diffusion......Page 179
Thermal Structure......Page 180
The Low- and Midlatitude Ionosphere......Page 181
The High-Latitude Ionosphere......Page 183
Venus......Page 185
Titan......Page 187
References......Page 188
Glossary......Page 190
Grid-Volume Averaging......Page 191
Subgrid-Scale Fluxes......Page 192
Parametrizations of the Phase Change of Water......Page 193
Solution Techniques......Page 194
Examples of Models......Page 195
References......Page 196
Glossary......Page 197
Introduction......Page 198
Infrared Cooling......Page 199
Net Thermal Drive and Temperature Structure......Page 200
Circulation Systems......Page 202
The Extratropical Circulation......Page 203
The Tropical Circulation......Page 206
The Zonal Mean Circulation......Page 208
The Extratropical Mean Meridional Circulation......Page 210
Sudden Stratospheric Warmings......Page 211
The Tropical Oscillations......Page 212
Waves in the Stratosphere......Page 214
Rossby Waves......Page 215
Rossby Normal Modes......Page 216
Wave Dissipation......Page 217
Transport of Minor Species......Page 218
Current Research......Page 219
See also the Following Articles......Page 220
References......Page 221
Glossary......Page 222
Atmospheric Variables......Page 223
Gravitational Force......Page 224
Apparent Forces: Centrifugal and Coriolis......Page 225
Potential Temperature......Page 226
Effective Gravity......Page 227
Generalized Vertical Coordinates......Page 228
Basic Aspects of Vorticity......Page 229
Vorticity Equations......Page 230
Ertel Potential Vorticity......Page 231
Scale Analysis......Page 232
The Hydrostatic Approximation and the Thermal Wind......Page 233
Gradient Wind......Page 234
Geometric Simplifications and Quasi-Geostrophic Theory......Page 235
Linearization......Page 236
Shallow-Water Equations......Page 237
Atmospheric Waves......Page 238
Buoyancy or Gravity Waves......Page 239
Effects of Rotation: Inertia–Gravity Waves and Rossby Waves......Page 240
Tropical Waves......Page 242
Static Instabilities......Page 243
Inertial instabilities.......Page 245
Barotropic and baroclinic instability.......Page 246
Tendency Equation......Page 247
Omega Equation......Page 248
Eliassen–Palm Flux......Page 249
The General Circulation and Atmospheric Energetics......Page 250
References......Page 252
Glosssary......Page 253
NH3/NH+4......Page 254
Organic Nitrogen and Aerosol Nitrogen Compounds......Page 255
Natural and Anthropogenic Fluxes of Key Constituents......Page 256
Concentrations of Major Constituents in the Modern-Day Atmosphere......Page 257
Photochemistry and Smog......Page 258
N2O, Tropospheric O3, and N Fertilization......Page 259
Stratospheric Chemistry......Page 260
References......Page 261
Introduction to the Nitrogen Cycle......Page 263
Reservoirs and Fluxes of the Biological Nitrogen Cycle......Page 265
Fixation of Atmospheric N2......Page 266
Mineralization of Nitrogen......Page 267
Nitrification and Denitrification......Page 268
References......Page 269
Glossary......Page 271
Introduction......Page 272
Ozone Production in the Troposphere......Page 273
The Tropospheric Ozone Cycle and Ozone Distribution......Page 275
Tropospheric Ozone Measurements......Page 278
UV-Absorption......Page 279
Measurements by the KI-Method......Page 280
Open Path UV-Absorption Spectrophotometry (including DOAS)......Page 281
Trend Determination......Page 283
Trends in Urban Plumes......Page 285
Trends in Urban and Suburban Areas......Page 286
Trends in Rural and Remote European Sites......Page 287
Surface Ozone Trends in Asia......Page 289
Ozone Trends in the Free Troposphere......Page 290
Summary and Conclusions......Page 291
See also the Following Articles......Page 292
References......Page 293
Glossary......Page 294
Introduction......Page 295
Sources of Atmospheric Radiation......Page 296
Atmospheric Vertical Structure......Page 297
Absorption, Scattering, and Extinction by Molecules and Particles......Page 298
Longwave Absorption and Emission by the Surface and the Atmosphere......Page 299
Plane Parallel or Slab Geometry......Page 300
Radiative Equlibrium......Page 301
Radiative-Convective Equilibrium......Page 303
Conclusion......Page 304
References......Page 305
Glossary......Page 306
Introduction......Page 307
Solar Processes: The Source for Sun–Earth Couplings......Page 308
Interplanetary Medium: The Mechanism for Sun–Earth Plasma Couplings......Page 309
Overall Morphology......Page 311
Plasma Processes......Page 313
The Sun–Earth Connection: Implications for Human Activity......Page 314
References......Page 317
Glossary......Page 318
Classical Global Electrical Circuit......Page 319
Thunderstorm Generator......Page 320
Fair-Weather Field......Page 323
Coupling With Ionospheric, Magnetospheric, and Solar Effects......Page 324
Recent Developments......Page 326
References......Page 328
Glossary......Page 329
Severe-Thunderstorm Reports......Page 330
Geographical Distribution......Page 331
Buoyant Instability of the Atmosphere......Page 332
Environmental Wind Profile......Page 334
Single-Cell Thunderstorms......Page 335
Multicell Thunderstorms......Page 336
Supercell Thunderstorms......Page 338
Other Configurations......Page 341
Severe-Thunderstorm Forecasts and Warnings......Page 342
References......Page 343
Glossary......Page 344
The Troposphere as a Chemical Reactor......Page 345
Hydrocarbons......Page 346
Nitric Oxide and Nitrogen Dioxide......Page 348
Photochemical Processes......Page 349
The Oxidation of Methane......Page 351
Alkanes......Page 352
Alkenes......Page 353
Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 354
Ozone......Page 355
Nitrogen Oxide Chemistry......Page 356
The Oxidation of Sulfur Compounds......Page 358
Aerosols and Clouds......Page 359
Size Distributions......Page 360
Chemical Composition of the Aerosol......Page 361
Basic Chemistry in Clouds......Page 362
Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide in Clouds......Page 364
References......Page 365
Glossary......Page 366
History......Page 367
Equations of Motion and Mass Continuity......Page 368
Time Extrapolation......Page 369
Atmospheric Modeling......Page 370
Solar and Terrestrial Radiation......Page 371
Role of Water Vapor and Clouds......Page 372
Soil Moisture, Ground Hydrology, and Vegetation......Page 373
Subgrid-Scale Processes......Page 374
Time Differencing Schemes......Page 375
Finite-Difference Method......Page 376
Semi-Lagrangian Method......Page 377
Special Problems in Atmospheric Modeling......Page 378
Observing Systems and Data Collections......Page 379
Concept of Initialization......Page 382
Variational Data Assimilation......Page 384
Predictability of the Atmosphere......Page 385
Prediction of Forecast Reliability......Page 387
Seasonal Prediction and Ocean–Atmosphere Coupled Modeling......Page 389
Severe-Storm Forecasts......Page 390
Computational Issues......Page 391
Utilization of Forecast Products......Page 393
Future Opportunities......Page 394
References......Page 396