Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, Second Edition, Volume 6: T-Z

Cover Page......Page 1
Subject Area Volumes from the Second Edition......Page 4
Volume 2 - Title page......Page 5
ISBN 9780123750440......Page 6
Editors......Page 7
Editorial Advisory Board......Page 8
Preface to First Edition......Page 11
In Memoriam......Page 12
2. Cross References......Page 13
5. Contributors......Page 14
Volume 1......Page 15
Volume 2......Page 18
Volume 3......Page 20
Volume 4......Page 23
Volume 5......Page 26
Volume 6......Page 29
Volume 1......Page 31
Volume 2......Page 33
Volume 3......Page 35
Volume 4......Page 38
Volume 5......Page 41
Volume 6......Page 43
Field and Parameter Estimation......Page 45
Regional Forecasting and Dynamics......Page 47
Concepts and Methods......Page 49
Examples......Page 52
Further Reading......Page 55
Introduction......Page 57
Plumes – the Mixing Agent......Page 59
Temperature and Salinity Variability......Page 60
Restratification......Page 61
Discussion......Page 63
Further Reading......Page 65
Enabling Deep Submergence Technologies......Page 66
Deep Submergence Science Topics......Page 68
Conclusions......Page 78
Further Reading......Page 80
Drilling Technology......Page 81
Deep-Sea Sampling......Page 84
Drilling Measurements......Page 85
Further Reading......Page 88
Introduction......Page 89
Science Initiatives......Page 90
Dynamics of the Earth’s Environment......Page 91
Technological Advances......Page 94
Facilities......Page 95
Management Structure......Page 96
Future Directions......Page 97
Further Reading......Page 98
Defining the Habitats......Page 99
Hydrothermal Vents......Page 101
Defining the Organisms......Page 102
Sampling the Fauna......Page 103
Patterns of Diversity......Page 105
How Many Species Are There?......Page 106
Low Diversity Environments......Page 107
Threats and Benefit......Page 108
See also......Page 109
Further Reading......Page 110
Depth-related Changes in Abundance and Biomass......Page 111
Sensory Systems......Page 114
Reproduction......Page 115
Further Reading......Page 116
Microbial Habitats......Page 117
Microbial Diversity at Deep-sea Vents......Page 119
Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vents and the Origins of Life......Page 122
Further Reading......Page 123
Bottom Currents......Page 124
Contourite Drifts......Page 125
Contourite Sediment Facies......Page 129
Contourite Sequences and Current Velocity......Page 132
Further Reading......Page 133
Introduction......Page 134
Principal Species Caught in Demersal Fisheries......Page 135
Effects of Demersal Fisheries on the Species They Exploit......Page 136
Effects of the Environment on Demersal Fisheries......Page 137
Management of Demersal Fisheries......Page 138
Demersal Fisheries by Region......Page 140
Further Reading......Page 141
Characteristics of Sea Surface Temperature......Page 142
Methods for Determination of Past Sea Surface Temperatures......Page 144
Further Reading......Page 156
Relevant Website......Page 157
What Is Differential Diffusion?......Page 158
Numerical Simulation of Differential Diffusion......Page 159
Oceanic Values of Diffusivity Ratio......Page 161
Other Observational Evidence for Differential Diffusion?......Page 162
Does Differential Diffusion Matter?......Page 163
Further Reading......Page 165
Deep-sea Observations of Mixing......Page 166
Summary......Page 172
Further Reading......Page 173
The Rising Plume......Page 174
Mesoscale Flow and Vortices......Page 176
Large-scale flow......Page 178
Discussion......Page 180
Nomenclature......Page 181
Further Reading......Page 182
Overview......Page 183
Sampling Biodiversity......Page 184
Coastal Environments......Page 185
The Open Ocean......Page 186
Estimates of Total Species Numbers......Page 188
Threats......Page 189
Concluding Remarks......Page 191
Further Reading......Page 192
Introduction: Physical Descriptions and Systematics......Page 193
Life History......Page 199
Distribution, Ranging Patterns, and Habitat Use......Page 200
Sensory Systems and Communication......Page 201
Behavior and Social Organization......Page 202
Conservation Status and Concerns......Page 203
See also......Page 204
Further Reading......Page 205
Salt Fingers......Page 206
Diffusive Convection......Page 210
Global Importance......Page 212
Further Reading......Page 214
Surface Drifters......Page 215
Subsurface Floats......Page 218
Relevant Websites......Page 222
Production of Marine Populations......Page 223
Assessing Population Status......Page 224
Management Targets and Limits to Exploitation......Page 226
Shifting Environmental States......Page 227
Uncertainty, Risk, and the Precautionary Approach......Page 228
Further Reading......Page 229
The East Australian Current......Page 231
Eddies......Page 235
Effects on the Continental Shelf......Page 238
Glossary......Page 239
Further Reading......Page 240
What Are the Costs of Sea Level Rise?......Page 241
What Are the Costs of Adaptation to Sea Level Rise?......Page 242
Conclusion......Page 243
Further Reading......Page 244
Introduction......Page 245
By-catch and Discards......Page 246
The Effects of Trawling and Dredging on the Seabed......Page 248
Species Interactions......Page 249
Further Reading......Page 251
Life Cycle......Page 252
Migrations in the Ocean......Page 256
Genetics and Panmixia......Page 258
Status of Eel Populations......Page 259
Glossary......Page 260
Further Reading......Page 261
Responses to Normal Environmental Variation......Page 262
Is Climate Change Research on Marine Mammals Scientific?......Page 263
Further Reading......Page 264
Ekman’s Theory of the Wind-driven Currents......Page 266
Ekman Transport and Pumping......Page 268
Summary......Page 270
Further Reading......Page 271
Introduction......Page 272
The Tropical Pacific Ocean–Atmosphere System......Page 274
Interannual Variations in Climate......Page 279
Impacts......Page 282
See also......Page 283
Further Reading......Page 284
Introduction......Page 285
The Oceans......Page 286
Interactions between the Ocean and Atmosphere......Page 288
See also......Page 289
Further Reading......Page 290
Electrical Conductivity......Page 291
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation......Page 295
Galvanic Couples......Page 296
Symbols used......Page 297
Further Reading......Page 298
Technical Challenge......Page 299
Particle Association and Speciation......Page 302
Further Reading......Page 304
Introduction......Page 305
The Global Ocean’s Energy Budget......Page 306
The Traditional Paradigm of Ocean Mixing: The Abyssal Ocean......Page 307
An Alternative Paradigm of Ocean Mixing: The Permanent Pycnocline......Page 311
Nomenclature......Page 313
Further Reading......Page 314
Introduction......Page 315
The Shallow-Water Equations......Page 317
Free-Wave Solutions of the Shallow-Water Equations......Page 318
Ocean Response to Brief Wind Perturbations......Page 320
Ocean Response to Slowly Varying Winds......Page 323
Conceptual Models of ENSO Based on Ocean Dynamics......Page 324
Observations of Kelvin and Rossby Waves, and El Niño......Page 327
Summary......Page 329
Further Reading......Page 330
Relevant Website......Page 331
Introduction......Page 332
Approaches to Quantifying Mixing......Page 333
Large-Scale Estimates......Page 334
Fine- and Microscale Estimates......Page 335
See also......Page 341
Further Reading......Page 342
Tides in Estuaries......Page 343
Circulation Types......Page 344
Turbidity Maximum......Page 347
See also......Page 348
Further Reading......Page 349
Introduction......Page 350
Structuring Elements and Processes......Page 351
Case Studies Indicating Trends and Symptoms......Page 355
‘Hot Spots’ and Remedial Measures......Page 363
Further Reading......Page 367
History/Definition and Nomenclature......Page 368
Tropical Conditions of Humidity......Page 371
Sources of Data......Page 372
Future Directions and Conclusions......Page 373
Further Reading......Page 374
History......Page 376
The Vectors of Exotic Species......Page 377
Vulnerable Regions......Page 382
Impacts on Society......Page 383
Management of Exotic Species......Page 384
Management......Page 386
Further Reading......Page 387
Relevant Websites......Page 388
Expendable Sensor Types......Page 389
Deployment Variations......Page 392
Data Recording and Handling......Page 393
See also......Page 394
Further Reading......Page 395
Basic Concepts in Fiord Descriptions......Page 397
Major Hydrodynamic Processes in Fiord Circulation......Page 398
Simple Quantitative Models of Fiord Circulation......Page 399
Conclusions......Page 401
Further Reading......Page 402
General Features......Page 403
Variability in Time and Space......Page 405
Impact of Tidal Currents......Page 406
Impact of Vertical Behavior......Page 407
Food Web Structure and Functioning......Page 408
Further Reading......Page 409
Biotic and Abiotic Factors in Distribution of Marine Fish......Page 411
Tolerances and Limits to Distribution......Page 412
Further Reading......Page 416
Modes of Feeding in Fishes......Page 418
Foraging Strategies......Page 421
Feeding Behavior and Climate Change......Page 423
Further Reading......Page 424
Larval Survival......Page 425
Foods and Feeding......Page 427
Temperature and Salinity......Page 429
Integration......Page 431
Research Needs......Page 433
See also......Page 434
Further Reading......Page 435
The Swimming Apparatus of Fish......Page 436
Interactions between Fish and Water: Fish Wakes......Page 438
The Energy Required for Swimming......Page 442
Energy-saving Swimming Behaviors......Page 443
Swimming Speed and Endurance......Page 444
Relevant Websites......Page 445
Terminology......Page 446
Typical Life Histories......Page 447
Mechanisms of Migration......Page 451
Discussion......Page 453
Further Reading......Page 454
Variation in Patterns of Vertical Migration......Page 455
Potential Factors Influencing Vertical Migrations of Fish......Page 456
Theories to Explain Diel Vertical Migration Behavior......Page 458
Conclusions......Page 459
Further Reading......Page 460
The Diversity of Predators......Page 461
How to Study Predation......Page 462
The Predation Equation......Page 463
Life Transitions and Predation......Page 464
Predation and Recruitment......Page 465
Predation and Evolution......Page 466
See also......Page 467
Further Reading......Page 468
General Life Histories......Page 469
Spawning Season......Page 470
Fecundity and Egg Size......Page 471
Spawning Behavior and Parental Care......Page 472
Egg and Larval Development......Page 473
Behavior......Page 474
Further Reading......Page 475
The School Rules and School Size......Page 476
Senses and Schooling......Page 477
Food, Predators, and Schooling......Page 478
A Genetic Basis for Behavior in Fish Schools......Page 480
Schooling, Fisheries, and Pattern in the Ocean......Page 481
Further Reading......Page 487
Image Formation......Page 489
Ocular Filters......Page 490
Retinal Structure......Page 492
Visual Pigments......Page 494
Visual Abilities......Page 498
Further Reading......Page 501
Taxonomic Diversity, Geographical Patterns, and Assemblages......Page 502
Appearance and Behavior......Page 504
Migration......Page 505
Feeding and Diets......Page 506
Reproduction and Life History......Page 508
Further Reading......Page 509
Diversity of Living Fish and their Origins......Page 511
Teleosts and Elasmobranchs......Page 512
Distribution of Marine Fishes......Page 516
Special Adaptations of Fish......Page 517
Further Reading......Page 519
Fish Hearing......Page 520
The Lateral Line......Page 524
Further Reading......Page 525
Relevant Websites......Page 526
Introduction......Page 527
Effects on Individuals, Populations, and Ecosystems......Page 528
Regional Effects of Climate......Page 530
Impacts of Changes in Fisheries on Human Societies......Page 533
Relevant Websites......Page 534
Introduction......Page 535
The Basic Economics of Capture Fishery Resources......Page 536
The Complications: Dealing with Complex Capture Fisheries Problems......Page 537
Fisheries Subsidies, Overcapacity, and Overexploitation......Page 539
Economics of Marine Protected Areas......Page 540
Further Reading......Page 541
Relevant Websites......Page 542
Introduction......Page 543
Fishing and Fishery Resources......Page 544
Issues in Fishery Management......Page 545
Emerging Issues in Fisheries and Fisheries Science......Page 547
Further Reading......Page 548
Introduction......Page 549
Tools for Quantifying the Interactions Among Marine Fish Species......Page 550
Hypotheses and Evidence for Multispecies Interactions......Page 552
See also......Page 555
Further Reading......Page 556
Management Systems–Institutional Arrangements......Page 557
Management Systems–Controls......Page 559
Performance Issues......Page 560
Problems and Issues......Page 562
Towards the Future......Page 563
See also......Page 564
Further Reading......Page 565
Introduction......Page 566
Human Dimensions and Management Rules......Page 567
Cooperation with Fisheries Management......Page 568
Further Reading......Page 571
A Global Perspective of Fishery Manipulation......Page 572
Quality and Survival of the Release Stock......Page 574
Genetic Considerations and the Introduction of Exotics......Page 575
Recapture and Monitoring Performance......Page 576
Conclusions......Page 577
Further Reading......Page 578
Classification of Fishing Methods......Page 579
Fishing Fleets......Page 586
Problems Related to Fishing Gears and Fishing Fleets......Page 588
Further Reading......Page 591
Temporal and Regional Variations......Page 592
Characteristics and Composition......Page 593
Significance for the Benthic Environment......Page 595
Further Reading......Page 597
Generating Forces......Page 598
Gulf Stream System......Page 600
North Brazil Current......Page 604
Labrador Current......Page 605
Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC)......Page 606
Further Reading......Page 607
Some Physics......Page 608
Important Deep Passages......Page 610
Broader Implications......Page 613
Further Reading......Page 615
History......Page 616
Two-layer Exchange Flows in Straits......Page 617
Barotropic Forcing of Exchange Flows......Page 618
Mixing in Straits and over Sills......Page 619
Effects Due to Rotation......Page 620
Further Reading......Page 621
Providing Measures of Unknown Coefficients or Values......Page 622
Influences on Ocean Observation......Page 623
Further Reading......Page 624
Estimating Abundance......Page 625
Phylogenetic Discrimination......Page 626
Physiological Applications......Page 627
Algal and Aquatic Plant Productivity......Page 628
Scales of Productivity Measurements......Page 630
Further Reading......Page 631
Relevant Websites......Page 632
Introduction......Page 633
Techniques......Page 634
Applications......Page 637
Conclusion......Page 638
Further Reading......Page 639
Introduction......Page 640
Food Webs and Fisheries......Page 642
Overfishing and Biodiversity......Page 644
Further Reading......Page 646
Relevant Websites......Page 647
Equations of Motion......Page 648
Discretization Issues......Page 650
Initial and Boundary Conditions......Page 651
Subgridscale Parameterizations......Page 653
Further Reading......Page 655
Introduction......Page 656
History of Fossil Turbulence......Page 658
Intermittency of Oceanic Turbulence and Mixing......Page 660
Turbulence and Fossil Turbulence Definition......Page 661
Quantitative Methods......Page 662
Further Reading......Page 663