Encyclopedia of modern optics

cover.jpg......Page 1
Editor-in-Chief......Page 2
Editors......Page 3
Consulting Editors......Page 4
Editorial Advisory Board......Page 5
Preface......Page 6
Introduction......Page 7
The Helium-Neon Laser......Page 0
Principles......Page 8
Qualification of Signal Regenerator Performance......Page 9
All-Optical 2R/3R Regeneration Using Optical Nonlinear Gates......Page 10
Optical Decision Element......Page 11
Optical Clock Recovery (CR)......Page 12
Optical Regeneration by Saturable Absorbers......Page 13
Synchronous Modulation Technique......Page 14
See also......Page 15
Further Reading......Page 16
Fraunhofer Diffraction......Page 17
Fresnel Diffraction......Page 18
Further Reading......Page 19
Laser Physics......Page 20
Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos in Lasers......Page 21
Applications of Chaos in Lasers......Page 23
Further Reading......Page 25
Kubelka-Munk Theory of Reflectance......Page 36
Intermediate Case......Page 38
Sample Geometry......Page 39
Kinetic Analysis......Page 40
Rate Constant Distributions......Page 41
Examples......Page 42
Further Reading......Page 43
Principle of Laser Trapping......Page 44
Laser Manipulation System......Page 45
Patterning of Polymer Nanoparticles......Page 46
Application to Biotechnology......Page 47
Transfer of Cells in Microchannel......Page 48
Collection and Alignment of Cells......Page 49
Further Reading......Page 50
Second-Order Spectroscopies......Page 53
Third-Order Spectroscopies......Page 54
Ultrafast Time Resolved Spectroscopy......Page 56
Spatially Resolved Spectroscopy......Page 57
Further Reading......Page 58
Photoproperties of Photosensitizers......Page 59
Mechanisms of Photodynamic Therapy......Page 61
Lasers in PDT......Page 62
Clinical Applications of Lasers in PDT......Page 65
Future Prospects......Page 66
Further Reading......Page 67
Experimental Measurement of Pump-Probe Data......Page 68
Origin of the Signal......Page 69
Nuclear Wavepackets......Page 71
See also......Page 72
Further Reading......Page 73
High Repetition Rate......Page 74
Ti-Sapphire......Page 75
Diode Lasers......Page 77
Further Reading......Page 78
Experimental Setup......Page 80
The Transient Density Phase Grating Technique......Page 81
Investigation of Population Dynamics......Page 84
Polarization Selective Transient Grating......Page 85
Further Reading......Page 87
Introduction......Page 88
Mutual Coherence......Page 90
Spectral Representation of Mutual Coherence......Page 91
Generalized Propagation......Page 92
Types of Fields......Page 93
Perfectly Coherent Fields......Page 94
Cross-Spectrally Pure Fields......Page 95
Secondary Sources......Page 96
Quasi-Homogeneous Sources......Page 97
Scaling Law......Page 98
Experimental Confirmations......Page 99
Interference Spectroscopy......Page 100
Higher-Order Coherence......Page 101
Further Reading......Page 102
Elementary Coherence Concepts......Page 104
Two-point Imaging......Page 105
Incoherent Two-Point Imaging......Page 106
Source Distribution and Object Illumination Coherence......Page 107
Spatial Frequency Modeling of Imaging......Page 108
Experimental Examples of Important Coherence Imaging Phenomena......Page 110
Primary Source Generation......Page 111
Noise Immunity......Page 112
Digital Post-detection Processing and Partial Coherence......Page 114
Summary and Discussion......Page 115
Further Reading......Page 118
Some Basic Observations......Page 119
Speckle Limits of Metrology......Page 122
Can We Overcome Coherence Limits......Page 123
Speckles as a Carrier of Information......Page 124
Further Reading......Page 126
Quantum Optimal Control Theory for Designing Laser Fields......Page 129
Algorithms for Implementing Optimal Control Experiments......Page 131
Conclusions......Page 136
Introduction......Page 137
Two-Path Interference Methods......Page 139
Closed-Loop Control Methods......Page 140
Further Reading......Page 141
Coherence Control......Page 142
Coherence Control in Semiconductors......Page 143
Coherent Control of Electrical Current Using Two Color Beams......Page 144
Coherent Control of Carrier Density, Spin Population, and Spin Current Using Two Color Beams......Page 146
Further Reading......Page 147
Introduction......Page 148
Basic Principles......Page 149
PSK Homodyne Detection......Page 150
FSK Heterodyne Synchronous Detection......Page 151
CPFSK Heterodyne Differential Detection......Page 152
Coherent Receiver Sensitivity......Page 153
PSK Homodyne Detection - Phase Locked Loop Schemes......Page 154
Phase-Diversity Receivers......Page 155
Polarization......Page 156
System Experiments......Page 157
Further Reading......Page 158
Optical Bloch Equations......Page 159
Maxwell-Bloch Equations......Page 160
Free Polarization Decay......Page 161
Photon Echo......Page 162
Stimulated Photon Echo......Page 164
Optical Ramsey Fringes......Page 165
Acknowledgments......Page 166
Further Reading......Page 167
Optical Bloch Equations......Page 168
Semiconductor Bloch Equations......Page 169
Superradiance......Page 170
Destructive Interference......Page 171
Quantum Beats......Page 172
Coherent Control......Page 173
Transient Absorption Changes......Page 174
Photon Echo......Page 176
Further Reading......Page 177
Coherent Dynamics......Page 178
Incoherent Relaxation Dynamics......Page 179
Hot Carrier Regime......Page 180
Hot Phonons......Page 181
Novel Coherent Phenomena......Page 182
Further Reading......Page 183
Photoreceptors in the Eye: Rods and Cones......Page 184
Temporal Response of the Human Visual System......Page 185
Color Perception Models......Page 186
The Commission Internationale de l’Echlairage (C.I.E.) Diagram......Page 187
Atmospheric Colors......Page 189
Colors due to Water and Water Droplets......Page 191
Sources of Color......Page 193
Further Reading......Page 194
The Absorption-Emission Cycle......Page 26
Signal vs Background......Page 27
Single Molecule Detection using Confocal Microscopy......Page 28
Optical Probe Volumes......Page 29
Intensity Fluctuations: Photon Burst Statistics......Page 30
Data Filtering......Page 32
Photon Burst Statistics......Page 33
Temporal Fluctuations: Autocorrelation Analysis......Page 34
Further Reading......Page 35
Introduction......Page 195
Interferometric Sensors......Page 196
Fiber Grating Sensors......Page 200
Fiber Laser Doppler Velocimeter......Page 202
Luminescence-Based Fiber Sensors......Page 203
Further Reading......Page 204
Heterodyning......Page 205
Introduction......Page 210
Image Formation......Page 212
Fractals for Texture Analysis......Page 213
Image Post-Processing Examples......Page 214
Example II: Frequency Domain Processing: Image Post-Processing in Biomedical Tissue Detection......Page 215
Example III: Time-Frequency Domain Filtering: Image Post-Processing in Noise Reduction (De-Noising)......Page 216
Image Post-processing, Transmission, and Distribution......Page 218
Requirements of Secure Digital Image Distribution......Page 219
Further Reading......Page 222
Silicon Technology for Image Sensing......Page 223
Basic Functionality and Physical Limitations of Conventional Solid-State Photosensors......Page 224
Desired Optoelectronic Functionality in Smart Pixel Arrays......Page 225
High-Sensitivity Charge Detection......Page 226
Extension of the Spectral Sensitivity Range......Page 227
Static Spatial Demodulation......Page 228
Dynamic Spatial Convolution......Page 229
Photonic Systems-on-chip......Page 230
Summary......Page 231
Further Reading......Page 232
Grating Equations......Page 233
Grating Theory......Page 235
Fabrication of Gratings......Page 236
Spectroscopic Gratings......Page 239
Diffractive Lenses......Page 240
Beam Splitter Gratings......Page 241
Inductive Grid Filters......Page 242
Introduction......Page 243
Kirchhoff Theory of Diffraction......Page 244
Fraunhofer Approximation......Page 249
Diffraction by a Rectangular Aperture......Page 251
Diffraction from a Circular Aperture......Page 252
Array Theorem......Page 254
N Rectangular Slits......Page 255
The Diffraction Grating......Page 256
Grating Spectrometer......Page 258
Blazed Gratings......Page 259
Fresnel Diffraction......Page 261
The Obliquity Factor......Page 262
The Cornu Spiral......Page 267
Fresnel Zones......Page 269
Circular Aperture......Page 271
Opaque Screen......Page 272
Zone Plate......Page 273
Further Reading......Page 274
Ray Tracing Simulation of DOEs......Page 275
Local Grating Model for the Ray Tracing Simulation of DOEs......Page 276
Aberration Correction for Interferometrically Recorded Holograms......Page 278
Testing of Aspheric Surfaces by Using a DOE as Aberration Compensating Element......Page 279
Correction of Chromatic Aberrations......Page 281
Summary......Page 283
Further Reading......Page 284
Overview of Conventional Lithography Systems......Page 285
Resolution Enhancement Techniques......Page 287
Micro-Optics in Conventional Lithography Systems......Page 288
Aperture Modulated Diffusers......Page 289
Fan-Out Based Diffusers......Page 291
Micro-Optics and Non-Conventional Lithography......Page 292
Introduction......Page 294
Design......Page 295
Multilevel Fabrication Using Binary Masks......Page 297
Continuous DOE Profiles Using Grayscale Lithography......Page 299
Further Reading......Page 301
Modes in Laser Resonators......Page 302
Design Principles......Page 303
Use of General Resonator Modes......Page 305
Examples......Page 306
Conclusion......Page 308
Introduction......Page 309
Multilayer Reflectors......Page 310
Diffraction Gratings......Page 313
Scattering (Incoherent Reflectors)......Page 318
Introduction......Page 320
Preform Fabrication......Page 321
Index Guided Fibers......Page 322
Bandgap Guided Fibers......Page 328
Tunable Microstructure Fiber Devices......Page 329
Further Reading......Page 330
Omnidirectional Reflecting Mirrors......Page 331
Fabrication Approach......Page 333
Materials Selection Criteria......Page 334
Bandstructure for Multilayer Fibers for External Reflection Applications......Page 335
Optical Characterization of ‘Mirror Fibers’......Page 336
Structure and Optical Properties of the Fabry-Perot Fibers......Page 337
Simulation of the Opto-Mechanical Behavior of the Fabry-Perot Fibers......Page 338
Mechanical Tuning Experiment and Discussion......Page 339
Wavelength-Scalable Hollow Optical Fibers with Large Photonic Bandgaps for CO2 Laser Transmission......Page 340
Further Reading......Page 343
Modeling Principles......Page 344
Free Propagation......Page 345
Propagation Through Elements......Page 347
Design Principles......Page 349
Fundamental Systems......Page 351
Further Reading......Page 356
Chromatic Dispersion in Optical Fiber Communication Systems......Page 357
Optical Nonlinearities as Factors to be Considered in Dispersion Compensation......Page 359
Dispersion Maps......Page 360
Corrections to Linear Dispersion Maps......Page 361
Fixed Dispersion Compensation......Page 362
Tunable Dispersion Compensation......Page 364
Chromatic Dispersion Monitoring......Page 367
Conclusion......Page 368
Further Reading......Page 369
Contrast Ratio......Page 370
Table of Emissive and Nonemissive Displays......Page 372
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)......Page 373
The Color CRT......Page 374
Field Emissive Displays (FEDs)......Page 375
Inorganic LED Displays......Page 376
Organic LEDs......Page 377
Thin Film EL (TFEL) Displays......Page 378
Reflective LCD......Page 379
Further Reading......Page 380
Introduction......Page 381
Theoretical Treatment of EIT in a Three-Level Medium......Page 382
Nonlinear Optical Processes......Page 384
Propagation and Wave-Mixing in a Doppler Broadened Medium......Page 385
Nonlinear Optics with a Pair of Strong Coupling Fields in Raman Resonance......Page 386
Pulse Propagation and Nonlinear Optics for Weak CW Fields......Page 387
Further Reading......Page 388
Backscattered Light......Page 389
Elements of a Doppler Lidar......Page 390
Description......Page 391
Applications of Coherent Doppler Lidar......Page 392
Description......Page 394
Heterodyne and Direct-Detection Doppler Trade-Offs......Page 396
Global Wind Measurements......Page 397
Further Reading......Page 398
Underlying Principles......Page 399
Spectral Mixture Analysis......Page 402
Geology......Page 403
Vegetation and the Environment......Page 404
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere......Page 406
Introduction......Page 407
Airborne DIAL Systems......Page 408
Global O3 Measurements......Page 409
Space-Based O3 DIAL System......Page 411
Global H2O Measurements......Page 412
H2O Raman Lidar Systems......Page 413
H2O DIAL Systems......Page 414
Tunable Laser Systems for Point Monitoring......Page 415
Laser Long-Path Measurements......Page 418
Further Reading......Page 419
Introduction......Page 420
Gases......Page 421
Spectral Resolution......Page 422
Scattering Methods......Page 423
An Example Atmospheric RT Model: MODTRAN......Page 424
Sun and Sky Viewing......Page 425
Further Reading......Page 427
Fiber Optics......Page 428
Active Fiber Compatible Components......Page 431
Telecommunications Technology......Page 432
Integrated Optics as a Future of Guided Wave Optics......Page 433
See also......Page 434
Effect of Dispersion on an Optical Signal......Page 435
Material Group Velocity Dispersion......Page 438
Waveguide Group Velocity Dispersion......Page 440
Further Reading......Page 442
Introduction......Page 443
MCVD Process......Page 444
VAD Process......Page 445
Fiber Drawing......Page 446
Fiber Coating......Page 447
Types of Fiber......Page 448
Light Propagation......Page 449
Attenuation......Page 452
Microbending Sensitivity......Page 455
Multimode Fiber Bandwidth for Multimode Fibers......Page 456
Chromatic Dispersion......Page 457
Polarization Mode Dispersion......Page 459
Nonlinear Effects......Page 462
Fiber Geometry Characteristics......Page 464
Numerical Aperture......Page 466
Effective Area......Page 467
Further Reading......Page 468
Linear and Nonlinear Signatures......Page 469
Physical Origin of Optical Nonlinearity......Page 470
Parametric Phenomena in Optical Fibers......Page 471
Four-Wave Mixing......Page 472
Further Reading......Page 473
Introduction......Page 474
Second-Harmonic Generation in Crystals......Page 475
Quasi Phase Matching (QPM)......Page 477
Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)......Page 479
Propagation of a Pulse......Page 481
Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)......Page 482
Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)......Page 484
Supercontinuum Generation......Page 486
Conclusions......Page 487
Further Reading......Page 488
Tight Jacket......Page 489
Fiber Identification......Page 490
Strength Member......Page 491
Filling Compounds and Other Components......Page 492
Cable Structures......Page 493
Types and Applications......Page 494
Blown Fiber......Page 495
General Considerations......Page 496
Optical Connectors......Page 498
Branching Devices......Page 499
WDM......Page 500
Other Passive Optical Components......Page 502
Fiber Modes......Page 503
Fiber Grating Theory......Page 504
Photosensitivity......Page 508
Grating Inscription......Page 509
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers......Page 510
Dispersion Compensator......Page 511
Optical Monitors......Page 512
Nonlinear Optics in Fiber Gratings......Page 513
Further Reading......Page 514
Fourier Transform Property of Lens......Page 515
4-f Coherent Optical Processor......Page 517
Spatial Filtering......Page 518
Complex Matched Spatial Filtering......Page 519
Joint Transform Correlator......Page 520
Further Reading......Page 522
The Cardinal Points and Planes of an Optical System......Page 523
Paraxial Matrices......Page 525
Using the Gaussian Constants......Page 526
Nodal Points and Planes......Page 529
Approximations for Thin Lenses......Page 530
The Paraxial System for Design or Analysis......Page 531
Reflectors......Page 532
Introduction......Page 533
Coma......Page 535
Astigmatism......Page 538
Curvature of Field and Distortion......Page 539
Conclusion......Page 540
Single Prisms as Reflectors......Page 541
Double Prism Reflectors......Page 543
Prisms as Instruments......Page 544
Further Reading......Page 545
Introduction......Page 546
Holographic Black Holes......Page 547
Public Display......Page 548
Object Holography......Page 550
Pulsed Lasers......Page 552
Pseudo Holograms......Page 553
Architectural Scale......Page 554
Twenty-First Century Art......Page 556
Further Reading......Page 557
Methodology of Holographic Recording and Replay......Page 558
Holographic Image Quality......Page 562
Underwater Holography......Page 563
Underwater Holographic Cameras......Page 564
The HoloMar System......Page 566
Further Reading......Page 567
Holographic Recording Materials......Page 568
Sensitivity of Photographic and Holographic Materials......Page 570
Processing of Silver Halide Emulsions......Page 571
Bleach Baths......Page 573
Dichromated Gelatin Materials......Page 574
Photopolymer Materials......Page 575
Thermoplastic Materials......Page 576
Bacteriorhodopsin......Page 577
Further Reading......Page 578
Overview......Page 579
Hologram of a Point Object......Page 580
Types of Holograms......Page 581
Recording Materials......Page 582
Application of Holography......Page 583
Further Reading......Page 584
The Development of Color Holography......Page 585
Silver Halide Materials......Page 586
Laser Wavelengths for Color Holograms......Page 587
Setup for Recording Color Holograms......Page 588
Processing of Color Holograms......Page 589
Computer-Generated Color Holograms......Page 590
The Future of Color Holography......Page 591
Further Reading......Page 592
From the Classical Hologram to the Computer-Generated Hologram: CGH......Page 593
From a Diffraction Grating to a Fourier CGH......Page 594
About Some CGH Algorithms......Page 596
Some CGH Applications......Page 598
Further Reading......Page 599
Direct Phase Reconstruction by Digital Holography......Page 600
The Fresnel Approximation......Page 603
Numerical Reconstruction by the Convolution Approach......Page 604
Numerical Reconstruction by the Lensless Fourier Approach......Page 605
Influences of Discretization......Page 606
See also......Page 607
Further Reading......Page 608
Double-Exposure Holographic Interferometry......Page 609
Real-Time Holographic Interferometry......Page 610
Digital Phase Measurement......Page 611
In-Plane Displacement Component Measurement......Page 612
Basic Interferometers for Dynamic Displacement Measurement......Page 613
Real-Time Time-Average Holographic Interferometry......Page 614
Flow Measurement......Page 615
The Dual Illumination Method......Page 616
Holographic Shearing Interferometry......Page 618
Further Reading......Page 619
Interferometric Sensitivity......Page 620
The Principle of Sandwich Holography......Page 621
Examples......Page 622
Introduction to Light-in-flight Recording by Holography......Page 623
Examples of Wavefront Studies......Page 624
Measuring the Shape of 3D Objects......Page 625
Further Reading......Page 626
Description......Page 628
Radiance Field......Page 629
Image Gathering......Page 630
Signal Coding......Page 631
Image Restoration......Page 632
Maximum-Realizable Fidelity F......Page 633
Electro-optical Design......Page 634
Information Rate, Fidelity and Robustness......Page 635
Information Rate and Visual Quality......Page 636
Further Reading......Page 638
Introduction......Page 639
Introduction......Page 648
Fast Corrections: Adaptive Optics......Page 650
Imaging Through the Atmosphere......Page 651
Adaptive System Design......Page 652
Future Development......Page 653
Other Adaptive Optics Applications......Page 654
Introduction......Page 655
Multispectral Imaging......Page 656
Interferometric Hyperspectral Imaging......Page 658
Spectral Resolution......Page 659
Grating-Dispersion Hyperspectral Imaging......Page 660
Software......Page 661
Further Reading......Page 663
Introduction......Page 664
Scattering Cross-Section......Page 665
Absorption Cross-Section......Page 666
Shallow Tissue Imaging Through Selection of Ballistic Photons......Page 667
Imaging in the Snake-Like Regime: Taking Advantage of Time (or Frequency) Gating......Page 669
Opto- (or Photo-)Acoustics......Page 671
Acousto-Optic......Page 672
Introduction......Page 673
History of Infrared Imaging......Page 676
Infrared Imager Performance......Page 677
General Characteristics of Infrared Imagers......Page 678
Testing Infrared Imagers: NETD, MTF, and MRTD (Sensitivity, Resolution and Acuity)......Page 680
Summary......Page 682
Modeling Infrared Imagers......Page 683
Further Reading......Page 684
Interferometric Imaging......Page 685
Introduction......Page 690
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FM-CW) LIDAR......Page 691
Numerical Example......Page 692
Aperture Array......Page 693
Imaging Applications Involving Incoherent Sources......Page 694
Radar Range Equation......Page 695
Applications and Future Directions......Page 696
Introduction......Page 699
Spatially Incoherent Light......Page 701
Synthetic Apertures with Spatially Incoherent Objects......Page 702
Theta Rotating Interferometer......Page 704
The Two Telescopes Interferometer of Labeyrie......Page 705
Photon Density Wave Imaging......Page 706
Forward Problem: Photon Density Waves......Page 707
Inverse Problem and Imaging Algorithm......Page 709
Applications......Page 710
Further Reading......Page 711
Geometrical Optics Transformations......Page 712
Spatial Frequency Content of the 3D Point Spread Function......Page 713
Diffraction Calculation of the 3D Point Spread Function......Page 715
Volume Holographic Imaging......Page 716
Further Reading......Page 720
Imaging and Atmospheric Turbulence......Page 721
Speckle Imaging......Page 724
Blind Deconvolution......Page 725
Deconvolution from Wavefront Sensing......Page 726
Partially Redundant Pupil Masking......Page 727
Further Reading......Page 728
Incandescent Lamps......Page 729
Discharge Lamps......Page 731
Fluorescent Lamps......Page 732
High Intensity Discharge Lamps......Page 735
Further Reading......Page 737
Synchrotrons......Page 738
Insertion Devices......Page 740
Undulator Spectrum......Page 741
Timing Structure......Page 743
See also......Page 744
Introduction......Page 745
Principle of OTDM......Page 746
Packet Interleaved OTDM......Page 747
Optical Sources......Page 749
Mach-Zehnder (M-Z) Interferometers......Page 750
Sagnac Interferometers......Page 752
Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)......Page 754
Synchronization - Optical Phased Locked Loops (PLL)......Page 755
OTDM Bit-Error Rate (BER) Performance......Page 756
Further Reading......Page 757
FT Without a Lens......Page 758
Object Before the Lens......Page 759
Serial Correlators......Page 760
Joint Transform Correlators......Page 762
Conclusion......Page 767
Introduction......Page 768
Historical Perspective......Page 769
Nonlinear Optical Element......Page 770
Absorptive Bistability......Page 771
Dispersive Bistability......Page 772
Four-Wave Mixing......Page 773
Optical Shadow Casting (OSC)......Page 774
Discrete Processors: Optical Matrix Processor......Page 775
Analog Optical Computing......Page 776
Further Reading......Page 777
Incoherent Image Formation......Page 778
Incoherent Spatial Filtering......Page 779
Incoherent Complex Matched Spatial Filtering......Page 780
Computed Tomography......Page 781
Further Reading......Page 783
SOA-XGM for Logic......Page 784
Integrated Optic Microring Resonator......Page 785
Further Reading......Page 786
Optical Digital Image Processing......Page 787
The Error Diffusion Algorithm......Page 788
The Hopfield-Type Neural Network......Page 790
The Error Diffusion Filter......Page 791
A Smart Pixel Implementation of the Error Diffusion Neural Network......Page 792
See also......Page 795
Neural Networks - Natural and Artificial......Page 796
Optical Processors......Page 797
Coherent Optical Fourier Transformation......Page 798
Photorefractive Neural Networks......Page 799
Conclusions......Page 800
Further Reading......Page 801
Astronomical Data......Page 802
Angular Resolution......Page 803
Imaging......Page 804
Spectroscopy......Page 805
Spectropolarimetry and Polarimetry......Page 813
Use of Optical Fibers in Astronomy......Page 815
Structure......Page 816
Further Reading......Page 817
Materials......Page 818
Interaction Between Light and Materials......Page 819
Ellipsometry Measurements......Page 820
Single Wavelength Ellipsometry (SWE)......Page 821
Variable Angle Ellipsometry......Page 822
Data Analysis......Page 823
Film Thickness......Page 824
Optical Constants......Page 825
Composition......Page 826
See also......Page 827
Fundamentals of Photometry......Page 828
Photometric Quantities......Page 829
Concepts of Advanced Photometry......Page 831
Primary Standards......Page 832
Secondary Type Measurements......Page 833
List of Units and Nomenclature......Page 836
Introduction......Page 838
Quantifying Scattered Light......Page 839
Angle Resolved Scatterometers......Page 840
TIS Instruments......Page 842
Analyzing Scatter from Surface Roughness......Page 843
Conclusion......Page 844
Prisms......Page 845
Gratings......Page 847
Imaging Spectrometers......Page 850
Further Reading......Page 856
Basic Imaging Theory......Page 857
Reflection at a Spherical Surface......Page 858
Reflector Surfaces......Page 859
Angular Spherical Aberration......Page 861
Chromatic Aberration......Page 862
Refractor Objectives......Page 863
Basic Oculars......Page 864
Reflectors......Page 865
Metrology......Page 866
Astronomical Telescopes......Page 869
Further Reading......Page 871
Plane Parallel Plate......Page 872
Fizeau Interferometer......Page 873
Radial Shear Interferometer......Page 874
Sagnac Interferometer......Page 875
Phase-Shifting Interferometry......Page 876
Further Reading......Page 877
Introduction......Page 878
Interferometer Styles......Page 879
Noise Sources and Interferometer Sensitivity......Page 882
Further Reading......Page 884
Basic Parts of a Phase-Measuring Interferometer......Page 885
Common Interferometer Types......Page 886
Phase Modulation Techniques......Page 887
Ramping Versus Stepping......Page 888
Phase Unwrapping......Page 889
Overview of Phase Measurement Algorithms and Techniques......Page 890
Algorithm Design......Page 891
Spatial Carrier-Frequency Technique......Page 892
Extended Range Phase Measurement Techniques......Page 893
Other Types of Systematic Errors to Consider......Page 894
Further Reading......Page 895
Interference in Thin Film......Page 896
Polarization Microscope......Page 897
White Light Interference......Page 898
Position of Fringes Under Envelope Due to Reflection of Dielectric......Page 899
Changes in Envelope and Fringes Due to Dispersion......Page 900
Controlled Phase Shift of Fringes Under the Envelope - Geometric Phase Shift......Page 901
Surface Topography and Object Structure Measurement......Page 902
Signal Processing of White Light Interferograms......Page 903
Scanner Nonlinearity......Page 904
Film Thickness Measurement......Page 906
Spatial Coherence Effects in the Interference Microscope......Page 907
Further Reading......Page 908
Brief History......Page 909
Characteristics......Page 910
Resonant Energy Transfer......Page 911
Stimulated Emission......Page 912
Optical Resonator......Page 913
Slow Axial Flow Lasers......Page 915
Diffusion Cooled Laser......Page 916
Conclusions......Page 917
Further Reading......Page 919
Background......Page 920
Brief History of Dye Lasers......Page 921
Laser-Pumped Pulsed Dye Lasers......Page 922
Continuous Wave Dye Lasers......Page 924
Multiple-Prism Dispersion Grating Theory......Page 925
Physics and Architecture of Solid-State Dye-Laser Oscillators......Page 926
Xanthenes......Page 928
Conjugated Hydrocarbons......Page 929
Solid-State Laser Dye Matrices......Page 930
Organic Hosts......Page 931
Dye Laser Applications......Page 932
The Future of Dye Lasers......Page 933
Introduction......Page 934
Further Reading......Page 940
Background: Why Excimer Lasers......Page 941
Excimer Laser Fundamentals......Page 944
Discharge Technology......Page 948
See also......Page 950
Introduction......Page 951
Principles of FEL Operation......Page 952
The Quantum-Theory Picture......Page 954
The Classical Picture......Page 957
Principles of FEL Theory......Page 959
The Pierce Dispersion Equation......Page 960
The FEL Gain Regimes......Page 961
Super-Radiance, Spontaneous-Emission and Self Amplified Spontaneous Emission (SASE)......Page 963
Saturation Regime......Page 964
FEL Accelerator Technologies......Page 967
Magnetic Wiggler Schemes......Page 973
FEL Oscillators......Page 974
Copper Vapor Lasers......Page 977
Afterglow Recombination Metal Vapor Lasers......Page 981
Continuous-Wave Metal Ion Lasers......Page 982
History......Page 984
Theory of Operation......Page 985
Operating Characteristics......Page 987
Technology......Page 988
Further Reading......Page 991
Optical Fiber Lasers......Page 992
Fiber Laser Fundamentals......Page 993
Continuous Wave Fiber Lasers......Page 995
Pulsed Fiber Lasers......Page 996
Other Fiber Lasers......Page 1000
Further Reading......Page 1001
Conjugated Polymers......Page 1002
Organic Semiconductor Gain Materials......Page 1003
Measuring Gain......Page 1004
Polymer Laser Resonators......Page 1006
Towards Plastic Diode Lasers......Page 1008
Further Reading......Page 1009
Planar Waveguides......Page 1010
Lasers......Page 1011
Waveguide Laser Materials......Page 1012
Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) PWL......Page 1014
Distributed Feedback (DFB) PWL......Page 1015
PWL Arrays......Page 1016
PWL Stability......Page 1017
Further Reading......Page 1018
Basic Principles......Page 1019
Physics of the Gain Medium......Page 1021
The Resonator......Page 1022
Semiconductor Laser Dynamics......Page 1024
Introduction......Page 1025
Energy Transfers......Page 1026
Photon Avalanche......Page 1027
Up-Conversion from Second-Order Optical Nonlinearity......Page 1029
Energy Transfers......Page 1030
Sequential Two-Photon Absorption......Page 1031
Photon Avalanche......Page 1033
The Self-Frequency Doubling Laser......Page 1034
See also......Page 1035
LASER-INDUCED DAMAGE OF OPTICAL MATERIALS......Page 1036
Further Reading......Page 1038
Physical Fundamentals......Page 1039
White LED Structures......Page 1041
Application of LEDs......Page 1042
Further Reading......Page 1043
Introduction......Page 1044
Basic Principles......Page 1045
Basic Principles......Page 1046
Examples of Experimental Results......Page 1047
Effect of a Constant Transverse Magnetic Field - The Hanle Effect......Page 1049
Examples of Experimental Results for Optical Pumping and Optically Detected Magnetic Resonances......Page 1050
Further Reading......Page 1052
Theoretical Background......Page 1053
Experimental......Page 1055
Further Reading......Page 1057
Introduction......Page 1058
Definitions......Page 1059
Symmetry......Page 1060
Measurements......Page 1061
See also......Page 1067
Introduction......Page 1068
Theory of the Thin Sample z-Scan......Page 1069
Thick Sample z-Scan......Page 1072
Example of z-Scan: Effective Cubic Nonlinearity of Liquid Crystals......Page 1073
Discussion: Effective n2 of Other Materials......Page 1074
Introduction......Page 1076
Purely Optically Induced Orientation......Page 1079
Photorefractive Effect......Page 1080
Supra-Nonlinear Methyl-Red Doped NLC - Observed Phenomena......Page 1081
Thermal and Density Effect......Page 1082
Second and Third Order Nonlinear Susceptibilities......Page 1083
Concluding Remarks......Page 1084
Macroscopic......Page 1085
Molecules......Page 1086
Bulk Materials......Page 1087
Importance of Order......Page 1093
Two-Photon Absorbing Materials......Page 1095
Composite Materials......Page 1100
Further Reading......Page 1103
The Conventional Microscope......Page 1104
Conventional and Scanning Microscopes......Page 1108
Probe Microscopes......Page 1109
Other Radiation......Page 1110
Raman Microscopy......Page 1111
Introduction......Page 1112
Image Formation in Scanning Microscopes......Page 1113
Applications of Depth Discrimination......Page 1115
Fluorescence Microscopy......Page 1116
The Use of Structured Illumination to Achieve Optical Sectioning......Page 1118
Summary......Page 1119
Introduction......Page 1120
Multi-photon Excitation Selection Rules......Page 1121
Enhanced Microscope Resolution Based on Multi-photon Excitation......Page 1122
Basic Imaging Applications of Multi-Photon Microscopy......Page 1123
4Pi Confocal Microscopy......Page 1124
Multifocal Multi-Photon Microscopy (MMM)......Page 1125
Multi-Photon 3D Microfabrication......Page 1126
Background......Page 1127
Polarization-Division Interference Microscopes......Page 1128
White Light Optical Profilers......Page 1130
Interferometric Microscope Objectives......Page 1132
Applications......Page 1133
Laser-based Interference Microscopes......Page 1134
Introduction......Page 1135
Basic Principles of Two-Photon Microscopy (TPM)......Page 1136
Fluorescent Probes......Page 1137
Two-photon Instrumentation......Page 1138
Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIM)......Page 1139
Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS)......Page 1141
Second-Harmonic Generation Microscopy......Page 1142
Coherent Anti-Raman Stokes (CARS)......Page 1144
Conclusion......Page 1145
Introduction......Page 1146
Dark Field Microscopy......Page 1148
Schlieren Imaging, Hoffman Modulation Contrast, and Differential Phase Contrast (DPC)......Page 1149
Interference Microscopy......Page 1150
Differential Interference Microscopy (DIC)......Page 1151
Digital Phase Retrieval......Page 1152
Further Reading......Page 1153
The Photo-Elastic Effect......Page 1154
Diffraction by Acoustic Waves......Page 1155
Anisotropic Bragg Diffraction......Page 1157
AO Devices......Page 1158
AOTFs......Page 1160
Modulators......Page 1162
List of Units and Nomenclature......Page 1163
Electro-Optics......Page 1164
Basic Relationships......Page 1167
Materials......Page 1168
Devices......Page 1170
Introduction......Page 1172
The Modulation of Semiconductor Lasers......Page 1173
Electro-optic Modulation of Light......Page 1176
Demodulation using PIN Photodiodes......Page 1178
Demodulation using Avalanche Photodiodes......Page 1179
Wavelength Selective Demodulation......Page 1180
Further Reading......Page 1181
Classical Versus Quantum Waves......Page 1182
Nonclassical Light from a Single Atom......Page 1184
Application of Nonclassical Light......Page 1186
Further Reading......Page 1187
Introduction......Page 1188
Relativistic Optics......Page 1189
Some Examples of Relativistic Nonlinear Optics......Page 1191
Further Reading......Page 1195
Introduction......Page 1196
Birefringent Phase Matching......Page 1199
Quasi-Phase Matching (QPM)......Page 1201
Compensated Phase Matching (CPM)......Page 1203
Acceptance Bands......Page 1204
See also......Page 1205
Grating-Fiber Compressors......Page 1206
Soliton-Effect Compressors......Page 1208
Compression of Fundamental Solitons......Page 1209
Raman Lasers......Page 1211
Raman Shifters......Page 1212
Raman Lasers......Page 1214
Introduction......Page 1219
Nonlinear Index of Refraction......Page 1221
Self-Lensing......Page 1222
Beam Trapping......Page 1223
Self-Focusing in Space-Time......Page 1227
Other Related Effects (Multiphoton Nonlinearities)......Page 1229
Further Reading......Page 1231
3D Confinement......Page 1232
Opto-Mechanical Implementation......Page 1234
Excitation Sources......Page 1235
Structural Materials......Page 1236
Multiphoton Initiators......Page 1239
Resolution......Page 1240
Multibeam-Interference Three-Dimensional Microfabrication......Page 1242
Structures and Functional Devices......Page 1244
Further Reading......Page 1249
Nonlinear Phase Shift in Collinear Second Harmonic Generation......Page 1250
Frequency Shifting......Page 1253
An Optical Diode......Page 1254
List of Units and Nomenclature......Page 1255
Introduction......Page 1256
General Considerations......Page 1257
Basic Equations......Page 1258
Steady-State Solutions......Page 1259
Phase Matching......Page 1260
Gaussian Beams and Pulses......Page 1263
Further Reading......Page 1265
Polarization and the Third-Order Susceptibility......Page 1266
Wave Equation for 3 Third-Harmonic Generation......Page 1267
Photonic Crystal......Page 1268
Defect Mode Using Photonic Crystal......Page 1269
Applications......Page 1270
Introduction......Page 1271
Relation Between Field and Polarization: The Response Function......Page 1272
Example and Selected Applications......Page 1273
Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing and Phase Conjugation......Page 1274
Conclusion......Page 1276
Kramers-Kronig Relations in Nonlinear Optics......Page 1277
Further Reading......Page 1282
Nomenclature Associated with the Excitation Light......Page 1283
Nonlinear Susceptibility......Page 1285
Complex Quantities......Page 1286
Nonlinear Absorption......Page 1287
Further Reading......Page 1289
Nonlinear Optical Phase Conjugation......Page 1290
Further Reading......Page 1293
The Standard Rate Equation Model......Page 1294
Coupled Wave Equations......Page 1296
Organic Materials......Page 1297
Distortion Compensation by Phase Conjugation......Page 1298
Optical Limiting, the Novelty Filter, and Laser Ultrasonic Inspection......Page 1299
List of Units and Nomenclature......Page 1300
Introduction......Page 1301
Self Focusing, Supercontinuum Generation, and Filamentation......Page 1302
High-Harmonic Generation......Page 1303
Further Reading......Page 1304
Introduction......Page 1305
Typical Experimental Parameters......Page 1306
Second Step: Free-electron Trajectory......Page 1307
Feynman Path-Integral Approach......Page 1308
HHs Generated by Few-Optical-Cycle Pulses......Page 1309
HHs Beam Characteristics......Page 1310
Spectrometers and Monochromators for HHs......Page 1311
HHs at Work: Applications and Perspectives......Page 1312
Further Reading......Page 1313
Amplifier Gain and Bandwidth......Page 1314
Gain Saturation......Page 1315
Basic Amplifier Configurations......Page 1316
Further Reading......Page 1317
Introduction......Page 1318
Components for EDFAs......Page 1319
The Single-Stage Amplifier......Page 1320
Multiple-Stage EDFAs......Page 1321
Advanced EDFA Functions......Page 1326
Further Reading......Page 1327
Key Elements......Page 1328
Key Optical-Amplifier Parameters......Page 1329
Erbium Fiber Amplifier......Page 1330
Raman Fiber Amplifier......Page 1332
Distributed Amplification......Page 1333
Hybrid Amplification......Page 1334
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing......Page 1335
Terrestrial Systems......Page 1337
Unrepeatered Systems......Page 1338
See also......Page 1339
Fiber Raman Amplifiers......Page 1340
Gain Saturation......Page 1341
FRA Performance and Applications......Page 1343
Brillouin Gain and Bandwidth......Page 1344
Gain Saturation......Page 1345
FBA Performance and Applications......Page 1346
Phase-Matching in Parametric Processes......Page 1347
Parametric Gain......Page 1348
Amplifier Gain and Bandwidth......Page 1349
Amplifier Performance and Applications......Page 1350
Basic Principles......Page 1351
SOA Structures......Page 1352
Basic Applications of SOAs in Optical Communication Systems......Page 1353
Pattern Effects and Crosstalk......Page 1355
Ultrashort Pulse Amplification......Page 1356
Functional Applications......Page 1357
See also......Page 1358
Introduction......Page 1359
Historical Perspective......Page 1360
Watermarks......Page 1361
Laser Perforation......Page 1362
Moire Effects......Page 1363
Devices Based on Light Diffraction......Page 1364
Thin-Film Foils......Page 1368
Light Interference Inks......Page 1369
Devices Based on Light Polarization......Page 1370
Coatings Based on Diffractive Pigments......Page 1371
Aluminum Flake Based Inks and Coatings......Page 1372
Summary and Challenges for the Future......Page 1373
Diamond Optical Devices and Coatings......Page 1374
Diamond Growth by CVD......Page 1376
Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission in Diamond......Page 1377
Impurities in Diamond......Page 1378
Electroluminescence in Poly-C......Page 1379
Poly-C Applications......Page 1380
Optical MEMS......Page 1381
Fundamental Damage Mechanisms in Thin Films......Page 1382
Units and Scaling of Laser-Induced Damage Threshold......Page 1385
Measurement of Laser-Induced Damage Thresholds......Page 1386
Optical Coatings for High Power Lasers......Page 1387
Summary......Page 1390
Further Reading......Page 1391
Introduction......Page 1392
Uses of Black Surfaces......Page 1393
Selection of Optical Black Surfaces......Page 1394
Optical Characterization......Page 1396
Future Developments......Page 1400
See also......Page 1402
Thin Film Optical Coatings......Page 1403
Design of Optical Coatings......Page 1404
Production of Optical Coatings......Page 1407
Quality Parameters of Optical Coatings......Page 1410
Summary and Outlook......Page 1411
X-Ray Coatings......Page 1412
X-rays Compared to the Other Electromagnetic Spectral Regions......Page 1413
Total Reflection X-Ray Mirrors......Page 1415
Multilayer X-Ray Mirrors......Page 1416
Further Reading......Page 1418
Introduction......Page 1419
Optical Fiber......Page 1420
Communication Components......Page 1422
Data Modulation Formats......Page 1425
Data Multiplexing......Page 1426
Dispersion Management and Compensation......Page 1428
System Performance Parameters......Page 1429
Introduction......Page 1430
Optical Fiber Development......Page 1431
Fielded Systems......Page 1434
Entrance of Wavelength Division Multiplexing......Page 1435
Undersea Optical Cable Systems......Page 1436
Simple Optical Fiber Links......Page 1437
Networks of Links......Page 1439
Single-Span WDM Links......Page 1441
Passive Optical Networks......Page 1442
Wavelength-Routed Optical Networks......Page 1443
Introduction......Page 1445
Atmospheric Losses......Page 1446
Turbulence and Scintillation......Page 1448
The Light Source......Page 1449
The Detector System......Page 1450
Recent Research and Future Considerations......Page 1451
Semiconductor Laser Principles......Page 1452
DWDM Transceivers......Page 1453
Directly Modulated Lasers......Page 1454
Requirements for Externally Modulated Lasers......Page 1455
Reliability of Lasers in Fiber Optic Systems......Page 1456
Further Reading......Page 1457
Introduction......Page 1458
Overview......Page 1459
IEEE 802.3 100Mb/s Ethernet (Fast Ethernet)......Page 1460
IEEE 802.3 1Gb/s Ethernet (Gigabit Ethernet)......Page 1461
Overview......Page 1462
MAC Protocol......Page 1464
Overview......Page 1465
MAC Protocol......Page 1466
Further Reading......Page 1467
Principles of Time Division Multiplexing......Page 1468
Ultra-Short Optical Pulse Sources......Page 1470
Transmission of an OTDM Signal over Fiber......Page 1471
Demultiplexing of OTDM Signal at Receiver......Page 1472
OTDM Networking Issues......Page 1473
Conclusion......Page 1474
Further Reading......Page 1475
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)......Page 1476
Point-to-Point DWDM Links......Page 1477
DWDM Networks......Page 1478
Optical Amplifiers......Page 1479
Optical Filters......Page 1480
Chromatic Dispersion......Page 1481
Conclusions......Page 1482
Bandpass Filters......Page 1483
Dispersion Filters......Page 1485
Longpass/Shortpass Filters......Page 1486
Absorber Glasses......Page 1488
Introduction......Page 1489
The Optical Nanoparticle Resonances (Mie Resonances)......Page 1491
The Theory of Mie......Page 1492
Beyond Mie’s Theory......Page 1494
Aggregates of Nanoparticles with Electrodynamic Particle-Particle Coupling......Page 1495
Size Effects......Page 1496
Electronic Interface States......Page 1498
The Static Interface Charge Transfer and its Effects Upon Mie Resonance Positions......Page 1499
Experimental Results......Page 1500
Comparison of Plasmon Polariton Lifetimes with Femtosecond Experiments......Page 1501
Further Reading......Page 1502
Lightweight Mirrors......Page 1503
Direct Generation......Page 1504
Glass, Glass Ceramics, and Hybrids......Page 1505
Silicon Carbide......Page 1506
Composites......Page 1507
Grazing Incidence Mirrors......Page 1508
Introduction......Page 1509
Free Electron Oscillators......Page 1510
The Dipole Oscillator Model (Lorentz Oscillator)......Page 1511
The Refractive Index......Page 1512
Local Field Correction......Page 1513
Measurable Optical Parameters......Page 1514
Metals......Page 1516
Crown and Flint Glasses......Page 1517
Dispersion Formulae for Optical Glasses......Page 1518
Athermal Lenses......Page 1519
Ultraviolet-Transmitting Glasses......Page 1520
Infrared-Transmitting Glasses......Page 1521
Further Reading......Page 1522
Introduction......Page 1523
The First Plastic Lenses in Cameras......Page 1524
Thermoplastics......Page 1525
Elastomere......Page 1528
Compression Molding......Page 1529
Series Production......Page 1530
Further Reading......Page 1531
Structure in Thin Films......Page 1532
Optical Thin Films......Page 1535
Current Research......Page 1537
Further Reading......Page 1539
Photochromic Glass......Page 1540
Thermochromic Materials......Page 1541
Electrochromic Materials......Page 1542
Nonlinear Optical Materials......Page 1543
Emissive Materials......Page 1544
Sol-Gel Chemistry of Oxide Optical Materials......Page 1547
Shapes, Compositions and Precursor Concentrations......Page 1548
Sol-Gel Fiber Processing......Page 1549
After the Sol-Gel Transition......Page 1550
Encapsulation......Page 1551
Introduction......Page 1552
The Paraxial Approximation......Page 1553
Introduction to Third-Order Monochromatic Aberrations......Page 1557
Spherical Aberration......Page 1558
Introduction......Page 1560
Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction......Page 1561
Diffraction in a Lens System: The Point Spread Function (PSF)......Page 1562
The Rayleigh and Marechal Criterion......Page 1563
Transfer Functions......Page 1564
Microlens Testing......Page 1565
Surface Profile Measurements......Page 1566
Measurement of the Optical Lens Performance......Page 1567
Summary of the Interferometric Instrumentation......Page 1571
Acknowledgment......Page 1572
Further Reading......Page 1573
What is an Optical Parametric Device......Page 1574
Nonlinear-Optical Origins of OPDs......Page 1575
Nanosecond-Pulsed OPOs - Design and Wavelength Control......Page 1576
Ultrafast-Pulsed OPOs......Page 1580
OPGs and DFGs - Dispensing with the Optical Cavity......Page 1581
Introduction......Page 1582
Basic Principle......Page 1583
Output Power......Page 1584
Frequency Control......Page 1585
SRO......Page 1586
DRO......Page 1587
Linewidth and Frequency Stability......Page 1588
Device Development Trends......Page 1589
Three-Wave Mixing in a (2) Medium with Focused Waves......Page 1590
Steady-State Description of the cwOPO......Page 1591
Synchronous Pumping......Page 1593
Dispersion in Nonlinear Media and Optical Glasses......Page 1594
Pump Sources......Page 1595
Tuning Characteristics and Methods......Page 1596
KTP......Page 1597
Fused Silica, BK7, SF2, SF5, SF10, SF11, SF18......Page 1598
Further Reading......Page 1599
Introduction......Page 1600
Optical Computing......Page 1601
Image Processing......Page 1602
Fourier Transform......Page 1603
l Mitigation Processing in Nonideal Systems......Page 1604
Optical Transfer Functions for Image Motion and Vibration......Page 1605
Optical Transfer Functions for the Atmosphere......Page 1606
Spatial Filtering......Page 1607
Further Reading......Page 1608
Theory......Page 1609
Force Calibration by Viscous Drag......Page 1610
Design......Page 1612
Biopolymers......Page 1616
Further Reading......Page 1617
Introduction......Page 1618
Phase Conjugation by Holography......Page 1619
Pseudoscopic Image......Page 1621
One Way Phase Conjugation......Page 1622
Background and Basic Concepts......Page 1624
Wavefront Coding Theory......Page 1625
Wavefront Coding in Imaging Systems with Extended Depth of Field or Focus......Page 1628
Further Reading......Page 1636
The Origins of Quantum Optics......Page 1637
The Photon in Modern Physics......Page 1640
Further Reading......Page 1643
Radiative Decay and Photon-Atom Binding in a PC......Page 1644
EIT and Cross-Coupling of Photons in Doped PCs......Page 1647
Further Reading......Page 1650
Maxwell’s Equations in Periodic Media......Page 1651
The Origin of the Photonic Bandgap......Page 1652
Semi-analytical Methods: Perturbation Theory......Page 1654
Two-Dimensional Photonic Crystals......Page 1655
Photonic-Crystal Slabs......Page 1656
Three-Dimensional Photonic Crystals......Page 1657
Further Reading......Page 1658
Wire Mesh Photonic Crystals......Page 1659
Defect States......Page 1660
Capacitive Mesh Photonic Crystals......Page 1661
Surface Waves......Page 1662
High-Impedance Surfaces......Page 1665
Further Reading......Page 1669
Introduction......Page 1670
Dispersion in PCF......Page 1671
Nonlinear Phenomena......Page 1673
Supercontinuum Generation......Page 1674
Optical Switching in PCF......Page 1675
Conclusion......Page 1676
Electromagnetics of Photonic Crystals......Page 1677
Photonic Crystal Resonant Cavities and Lasers......Page 1679
Photonic Crystal Waveguides......Page 1682
Further Reading......Page 1685
Photonic Bandgap......Page 1686
The Self-Assembly Technique......Page 1687
Formation of Colloidal Lattices......Page 1688
Colloidal Lattices as Photonic Crystals......Page 1689
Colloidal Lattices as Templates......Page 1690
Functionalization......Page 1692
Tunable Photonic Crystals......Page 1693
Further Reading......Page 1694
Introduction......Page 1695
Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM)......Page 1697
Cluster Physics......Page 1698
FELs in the Extended UV to X-ray Region......Page 1699
Further Reading......Page 1700
Theory......Page 1716
Experimental......Page 1717
Surface Specificity......Page 1718
Applications......Page 1719
Further Reading......Page 1720
Introduction......Page 1721
Birefringent Materials (Calcite)......Page 1723
Dichroic Absorbers......Page 1725
Reflection and Transmission......Page 1726
Miscellaneous Types......Page 1728
Retarders or Retardation Plates......Page 1729
Variable Retardation Plates and Compensators......Page 1731
Electro-Optic, Magneto-Optic, and Piezo-Optic Devices......Page 1732
Matrix Methods for Computing Polarization......Page 1734
Further Reading......Page 1735
Polarization Ellipse......Page 1736
Stokes Parameters......Page 1737
Mueller Calculus......Page 1738
Jones Vector......Page 1739
Jones Calculus......Page 1740
Further Reading......Page 1741
Computer to Plate Printing......Page 1702
Materials Processing - Heating......Page 1704
Materials Processing - Localized Heating......Page 1705
Semiconductor Lithography......Page 1706
Fine Control Material Removal......Page 1707
Microscopy......Page 1709
Raman Methods and Microscopy......Page 1710
Infrared Methods......Page 1712
Further Reading......Page 1714
Brief History......Page 1742
Electromagnetic Field as a Collection of Harmonic Oscillators......Page 1743
Mode Functions......Page 1744
Canonical Quantization......Page 1745
Space of Quantum States......Page 1746
Entangled States......Page 1747
Further Reading......Page 1748
Modification of the Spontaneous Transition Rate in Confined Space......Page 1749
Maser Operation......Page 1750
Generation of Number States (Fock States) of the Radiation Field......Page 1752
Other Cavity Experiments......Page 1753
Microlasers......Page 1754
Introduction......Page 1755
Quantized States: Observation via Strong Light-Matter Interaction......Page 1757
Superposition Principle: Observation of Quantum Optical Correlations......Page 1759
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Squeezing of Light Emission......Page 1761
Summary......Page 1762
Atom Optics......Page 1763
Nanofabricated Atom Optics......Page 1765
Standing Waves of Light......Page 1767
Kapitza-Dirac Scattering......Page 1772
Comparison of Atom-Standing Wave Interactions......Page 1774
Atom Interferometry......Page 1776
Conclusion......Page 1777
Electromagnetically Induced Transparency......Page 1778
Introduction......Page 1780
Bringing Light to a Halt: Frozen Light......Page 1781
Storing and Retrieving Quantum Information......Page 1782
Introduction......Page 1783
Schemes with Population Inversion at the Driving Transition......Page 1785
Further Reading......Page 1786
Multiqubit States and Entanglement......Page 1787
Creating Entangled States Experimentally......Page 1788
Quantum Key Distribution......Page 1790
Quantum Superdense Coding......Page 1791
Quantum Teleportation......Page 1792
Lithography......Page 1793
Further Reading......Page 1794
Laser Cooling of Ions in a Radiofrequency Trap......Page 1795
Sideband Cooling......Page 1796
Generation of Chaos During the Cooling Process and Phase Transitions to Ordered Configurations......Page 1798
Conclusion......Page 1801
Further Reading......Page 1802
Quantum Computation: Basic Definitions......Page 1803
Single-Qubit Rotations......Page 1805
Conditional Dynamics: Controlled-Phase Gate......Page 1806
Quantum Computing with Atoms II: Ion Traps......Page 1807
The Cirac and Zoller Quantum Computer......Page 1808
Frequency Estimations as a Quantum Computation: Building Frequency Standards with Entangled States......Page 1809
Further Reading......Page 1810
Introduction......Page 1811
Dynamics of a Parametrically Excited Crystal......Page 1812
Physical Interactions Giving Phonon Squeezing......Page 1814
Experimental Generation and Detection of Squeezed Phonons by Second Order Raman Scattering......Page 1815
KTaO3......Page 1816
Further Reading......Page 1818
Introduction......Page 1819
Definitions......Page 1820
Single-Particle Motion......Page 1822
Constants of the Motion......Page 1823
Role of Initial Phase......Page 1826
Radiation from Relativistic Electrons......Page 1827
Collective Plasma Response......Page 1829
Propagation......Page 1830
Relativistic Self-Focusing......Page 1831
Raman Scattering, Plasma Wave Excitation and Electron Acceleration......Page 1832
Interactions with Solid-Density Targets......Page 1834
Further Reading......Page 1837
Raman Scattering......Page 1838
Stimulated Raman Scattering......Page 1839
Transient Effects......Page 1841
Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering......Page 1842
Scattering from Rough Surfaces......Page 1843
Scattering from Dielectric Thin Films......Page 1844
Angle Resolved Scattering (ARS)......Page 1845
Fields of Applications......Page 1846
Examples of Measurements......Page 1847
Further Reading......Page 1849
General Features......Page 1850
Stimulated Raman Scattering......Page 1851
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering......Page 1853
Further Reading......Page 1854
Helmholtz Equation. Herman Ludwig von Helmholtz (1821-1894)......Page 1855
Silver-Muller Radiation Conditions......Page 1856
Huygen’s Principle (Green’s Theorem). Christian Huygens (1629-1695)......Page 1857
Mie Scattering......Page 1858
Stimulated Scattering......Page 1859
Stimulated Raman Scattering......Page 1860
Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh Scattering......Page 1863
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering......Page 1865
Stimulated Rayleigh Scattering......Page 1866
Parametric Fluorescence......Page 1867
Self-focusing......Page 1868
Further Reading......Page 1869
Amorphous Structure......Page 1870
Amorphous Semiconductor Energy Bands......Page 1871
Preparation of Amorphous Silicon......Page 1872
Optical Properties of Amorphous Semiconductors......Page 1873
Electrical Properties of Amorphous Semiconductors......Page 1874
Further Reading......Page 1875
Suppression of Auger Recombination......Page 1876
Interband (Bipolar) Lasers......Page 1878
Phonon Scattering: QWIPs and QC Lasers......Page 1879
Further Reading......Page 1880
Energy Band Structure, Optical and Magneto-optical Properties of SMSs......Page 1881
Magnetic Properties......Page 1884
Low-Dimensional (LD) SMSs: Magneto-optical and Spintronic Effects......Page 1885
Further Reading......Page 1886
GaAs Bandstructure......Page 1887
Temperature Dependence......Page 1888
GaAs/AlxGa(1-x)As - The Most Significant Alloy......Page 1889
Optical Absorption......Page 1890
Refractive Index......Page 1891
Further Reading......Page 1892
Material Properties and Strain......Page 1893
Electronic Properties and Band Structure......Page 1895
Optical Properties......Page 1898
Conclusions......Page 1900
Introduction to InGaN......Page 1901
Optical Energy Relationships......Page 1902
Bandgap of InN......Page 1903
Structure of InGaN Epilayers......Page 1904
II-VI Materials Growth......Page 1906
Introduction......Page 1907
Transmission and Absorption of Light within II-VI Materials......Page 1909
Light-Semiconductor Interactions......Page 1910
Quantum Wells, High Carrier Density Effects, and Lasers......Page 1912
Further Reading......Page 1913
Basic Properties......Page 1914
Band Structure......Page 1915
Optical Properties......Page 1916
Infrared Lasers......Page 1917
Infrared Detectors......Page 1919
Summary......Page 1920
Introduction......Page 1921
Fundamental Material Properties......Page 1922
Carrier Lifetime Mechanisms......Page 1923
Substrates for Epitaxial Growth......Page 1926
HgCdTe Infrared Detector Configurations......Page 1927
PV HgCdTe Detectors......Page 1928
MIS HgCdTe Detectors......Page 1929
Two-Dimensional HgCdTe Infrared Focal Plane Arrays......Page 1930
Further Reading......Page 1931
Instrumentation......Page 1932
Bulk/Thin-Film Material......Page 1933
Surfaces/Interfaces......Page 1934
Micro- and Nanostructures......Page 1935
Summary......Page 1936
Introduction......Page 1937
Lithography for Quantum Dots......Page 1938
Growth of Self-Assembled Quantum Dots......Page 1939
Optical Properties......Page 1940
Lasers and Self-Assembled Quantum Dots......Page 1943
Single-Dot Spectroscopy......Page 1944
Introduction......Page 1946
InAs/GaSb/AlSb-Based Type-II Superlattices and Quantum Wells......Page 1948
Type-II IR Photodetectors......Page 1949
Type-II IR Lasers......Page 1951
Further Reading......Page 1954
Introduction......Page 1955
Density of States......Page 1956
Energy Bands and Energy Gaps: Semiconductors......Page 1957
Electrons and Holes......Page 1958
Infrared Absorption - Interband Optical Transitions, Excitons......Page 1959
Low Dimensional Systems: Quantum Wells......Page 1960
Introduction......Page 1961
k.p Theory......Page 1962
Narrow-Gap Semiconductors......Page 1963
Density of States......Page 1964
Quantum Wells......Page 1965
Further Reading......Page 1966
Optical Properties......Page 1967
Influence of Quantum Confinement......Page 1968
Exciton Scattering......Page 1970
Introduction......Page 1971
Dopants......Page 1972
Native Defects......Page 1973
1D Defects......Page 1974
2D Defects......Page 1976
Interactions of Defects......Page 1977
Further Reading......Page 1978
Phonons in a Diatomic Linear Chain Lattice......Page 1979
Born-Huang Optic Phonon Model......Page 1981
Impurity Phonon Modes......Page 1982
Group IV Semiconductors......Page 1983
Group III-V and II-VI Semiconductors: Bulk Crystals......Page 1984
Layered Semiconductor Structures......Page 1987
Light Scattering......Page 1989
Raman Scattering by Phonons......Page 1990
Selection Rules in Raman Scattering......Page 1991
Geometrical Aspects of First-Order Raman Scattering......Page 1992
Anharmonic Effects on Raman Spectra......Page 1993
Further Reading......Page 1994
The Polaron Concept......Page 1995
Optical Absorption of Polarons at Weak Coupling......Page 1996
Optical Absorption of Polarons at Strong Coupling......Page 1997
Polaron Cyclotron Resonance......Page 1998
Cyclotron Resonance of Polarons in Silver Halides......Page 1999
Cyclotron Resonance of Polarons in CdTe......Page 2000
Optical Properties of Quantum Dots: Effects of the Polaron Interaction......Page 2001
Further Reading......Page 2002
Electron States in Bulk Material......Page 2003
Electron States in Quantum Wells......Page 2005
Occupancy of States in Quantum Wells......Page 2007
Formation of Quantum Wells......Page 2008
General Principles......Page 2010
Optical Absorption......Page 2012
Concluding Remarks......Page 2013
Further Reading......Page 2014
Electron-Electron Interaction in Traps......Page 2015
Assumptions for Nonequilibrium Statistics......Page 2016
The Case of Defects......Page 2017
Quantum Efficiency......Page 2018
Auger Effects......Page 2020
Identification of Auger Effects......Page 2022
Spin Transport and Relaxation in Semiconductors; Spintronics......Page 2023
Optical Generation of Spin-Polarized Distributions......Page 2024
Mobile Electron Spin Time Evolution: Decoherence and Precession......Page 2025
Transport and Manipulation of Spin Coherence......Page 2026
Transfer of Spin Coherence from Mobile Electrons to Other Spin Systems......Page 2028
Further Reading......Page 2029
Principles of Operation......Page 2030
Experimental Details......Page 2032
Applications I: Uniform Semiconductors......Page 2033
Applications II: Multilayer Structures......Page 2035
Further Reading......Page 2036
Introduction......Page 2037
1D Kerr Spatial Solitons and the Nonlinear Schrodinger Equation......Page 2038
Kerr Spatial Solitons in Two Transverse Dimensions: Saturable and Nonlocal Media......Page 2040
Spatial Solitons in Photorefractive Media......Page 2041
Screening and Photovoltaic Solitons......Page 2042
Spatial Solitons in Nonlocal Media, Liquid Crystalline Media......Page 2043
Parametric Spatial Solitons in Quadratic Media......Page 2045
Conclusions......Page 2048
Further Reading......Page 2049
The Nonlinear Schrodinger Equation......Page 2050
Self-Phase Modulation......Page 2051
Bright Solitons......Page 2053
Dispersion-Managed Solitons......Page 2055
Modulational Instability......Page 2056
Conclusion......Page 2058
Introduction......Page 2059
Solitons in the Presence of Amplification and Loss......Page 2060
Soliton Control......Page 2061
Introduction......Page 2062
Properties......Page 2063
Loop Experiments......Page 2064
Future Outlook......Page 2065
Introduction......Page 2066
Fiber Temporal Solitons......Page 2067
Solitons in Optical Communications......Page 2068
Multi-Component Temporal Solitons......Page 2070
Temporal Solitons in Bragg Gratings......Page 2072
Solitons in Dissipative Nonlinear Optics......Page 2074
Further Reading......Page 2075
Introduction......Page 2076
Background......Page 2078
Optical Frequency Metrology with Femtosecond Combs......Page 2080
Outlook......Page 2083
Introduction......Page 2084
Fourier Analysis and Interferometry......Page 2085
Discrete Sampling......Page 2087
Phase Correction......Page 2088
Example of Experimental Results......Page 2090
Advantage of FTS Over Dispersive Spectrometer......Page 2091
Further Reading......Page 2093
Fourier Transform Multiplexing......Page 2094
Hadamard Transform Multiplexing......Page 2095
Theory of Hadamard Multiplexing......Page 2096
Hadamard Encoding Masks......Page 2097
2D Encoding Masks for Multiplexing in Spectral Imaging and Imaging......Page 2098
Tensor Product Construction......Page 2099
Optics for Hadamard Encoded Apertures......Page 2100
The History of Applied Hadamard Multiplexing......Page 2101
Further Reading......Page 2102
Introduction: Linear and Nonlinear Spectroscopy......Page 2103
Third-Order Nonlinear Spectroscopy......Page 2104
Saturation Spectroscopy......Page 2105
Polarization Spectroscopy......Page 2106
Multiphoton Absorption Spectroscopy......Page 2108
Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing (DFWM) Spectroscopy......Page 2109
Coherent Raman Spectroscopy......Page 2110
Laser-Induced Grating Spectroscopy......Page 2112
Introduction......Page 2113
Raman Microscopy......Page 2114
Beam Quality......Page 2116
Polarization......Page 2117
Emission Linewidth......Page 2118
Helium-Neon Laser......Page 2119
Krypton Ion Laser......Page 2120
Near Infrared Lasers......Page 2121
External-Cavity Semiconductor Lasers (ECSL)......Page 2122
Nd:YVO4 and Nd:YLF Lasers......Page 2123
UV Lasers......Page 2124
Frequency-Doubled Argon Ion Laser......Page 2125
Conclusions......Page 2126
Further Reading......Page 2127
Basic Notions......Page 2128
Anharmonic Oscillator Model......Page 2129
The Surface Nonlinear Response......Page 2131
Radiation Properties for Surface SHG......Page 2132
Experimental Considerations......Page 2133
Adsorbate Density......Page 2135
Surface Symmetry and Molecular Orientation......Page 2136
Surface and Interface Spectroscopy......Page 2137
Spatially Resolved Measurements......Page 2138
Probing Magnetization at Interfaces......Page 2139
Concluding Remarks......Page 2140
Introduction......Page 2141
Historical Outlook......Page 2142
Requirements for Single-Molecule Sensitivity......Page 2143
Fluorescence Emission......Page 2146
Other Spectroscopies......Page 2148
Biophysical and Biological Studies......Page 2151
Perspectives......Page 2155
Further Reading......Page 2156
Introduction......Page 2157
Free Electron THz Laser......Page 2158
Semiconductor THz Laser......Page 2159
THz Photoconductive Antenna (PCA)......Page 2160
Other Coherent THz Sources......Page 2161
THz Generation from Semiconductors......Page 2162
Few-Cycle THz Spectroscopy of Semiconductor Quantum Structures......Page 2167
Further Reading......Page 2169
Introduction......Page 2170
General Principles of Time-Resolved Fluorometry......Page 2171
Principle of the Single-Photon Timing Technique......Page 2173
Laser Sources for the Single-Photon Timing Technique......Page 2174
Phase Fluorometers Using the Harmonic Content of a Pulsed Laser......Page 2176
Data Analysis......Page 2177
Introduction......Page 2178
Ultrafast Laser Spectroscopic Techniques......Page 2179
Excimer Formation......Page 2180
Electronic Energy Transfer, Energy Migration and Trapping......Page 2182
Further Reading......Page 2186
Introduction......Page 2200
Optical Doppler Tomography......Page 2201
Phase-Resolved ODT Method......Page 2203
Spectral Domain Phase-Resolved ODT Method......Page 2204
Transverse Flow Velocity and Doppler Angle Determination......Page 2205
Applications......Page 2206
Polarization Sensitive OCT......Page 2207
Second Harmonic OCT......Page 2209
Acknowledgments......Page 2210
Further Reading......Page 2211
Principles of Operation......Page 2187
Fast Scanning......Page 2190
Beam Delivery......Page 2191
Developmental Biology......Page 2192
Medicine - Imaging Barrett’s Esophagus......Page 2194
Oncology - Identifying Tumors and Tumor Margins......Page 2195
Image-Guided Surgery......Page 2196
Materials......Page 2197
Conclusions......Page 2198
Further Reading......Page 2199
Active Mode-locking......Page 2212
Passive Mode-locking......Page 2213
Pulse Shaping by Material Dispersion......Page 2214
Ti:sapphire Lasers......Page 2217
Fiber Lasers......Page 2218
Sources of Amplified Ultrashort Pulses......Page 2219
Introduction......Page 2220
Autocorrelation......Page 2221
Spectral Interferometry - Relative Phase Measurements......Page 2223
Time-Frequency Representation......Page 2224
Frequency-Resolved Optical Gating......Page 2225
FROG Inversion Algorithms......Page 2227
Self Checks in FROG Measurements......Page 2229
Measuring Pulses Directly - SPIDER......Page 2230
Which Pulse Measurement Method Should I Use......Page 2231
Further Reading......Page 2232
From Nanosecond to Picosecond to Femtosecond Reaction Kinetics......Page 2233
The Formation of Coherent Wave Packets and their Motion......Page 2235
Pump-Probe Method......Page 2236
Three-Pulse Four-Wave Mixing Method......Page 2237
Dissociation on a Repulsive Surface......Page 2238
Reactions Involving Crossing of Potential Energy Surfaces......Page 2239
The Dynamics of Bond Formation......Page 2240
Different Measurements Possible with Three-Pulse FWM......Page 2242
Control Using Three-Pulse Four-Wave Mixing......Page 2244
Further Reading......Page 2245
Ultrafast Chemistry......Page 2246
Laser Technology......Page 2248
UV/VIS Pump-UV/VIS Probe Spectroscopy......Page 2249
Electronic Four-Wave Mixing Spectroscopy......Page 2250
Electronic Condensed Phase Spectroscopy: Femtochemistry and Solvation Dynamics......Page 2251
Ultrafast Vibrational Spectroscopy in Photochemistry: Structural Dynamics......Page 2252
Equilibrium Structural Dynamics in the Electronic Ground State......Page 2254
Further Reading......Page 2256
Generation and Characteristics of Spectrally Decomposed Waves......Page 2257
Nonlinear Wave Mixing With Nondepleting Pumps......Page 2260
Detection of Ultrafast Waveforms......Page 2261
Processing of Ultrafast Waveforms......Page 2262
Synthesis of Ultrafast Waveforms......Page 2264
Further Reading......Page 2266
Early History of Quantum Electronics......Page 2267
Further Reading......Page 2271
Race to the Light......Page 2273
Obstacles and Solutions......Page 2275
The Laser Design......Page 2276
Do it......Page 2277
The Light Fantastic......Page 2278
sdarticle_002.pdf......Page 2279
How Things Evolved......Page 2280
The Physics Effect......Page 2281
Optical Gain and Amplification Effect......Page 2282
Experimental Phase......Page 2283
The Impact......Page 2284
Further Reading......Page 2285