Encyclopedia of meat sciences

A. EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD......Page 1
A. EDITOR-IN-CHIEF......Page 3
A. Editors......Page 4
A. FOREWORD......Page 5
A. INTRODUCTION......Page 7
A. Notes on the Subject Index......Page 9
A. PREFACE......Page 10
Functional Properties......Page 12
Functional Components of Extender Ingredients......Page 13
Milk Ingredients......Page 14
Gums and Hydrocolloids......Page 15
Animal-Derived Extender Ingredients......Page 16
Carcass Composition......Page 17
Salt......Page 18
Phosphate......Page 19
Seasonings......Page 20
Antimicrobials......Page 21
Acidifiers......Page 22
Functional Properties......Page 23
Genetic Markers, Quantitative Trait Loci and Major Genes......Page 24
Identification of Genes and QTLs......Page 27
Applying the New Knowledge in Genetic Improvement......Page 29
Genetic Response and Cost-Effectiveness of MAS......Page 31
Hazard Identification......Page 32
Carcass Composition......Page 33
Crossbreeding......Page 34
Genetic Parameters for Carcass Composition and Meat Quality Traits......Page 35
Selection Programmes......Page 37
Future Considerations......Page 40
Genetic Markers, Quantitative Trait Loci and Major Genes......Page 41
Hazard Identification......Page 42
BookmarkTitle:......Page 43
Exposure Assessment......Page 44
Risk Management......Page 45
Acceptability of Risk......Page 46
Introduction......Page 47
Tetracyclines......Page 48
Glycopeptides......Page 49
Food-Borne Pathogens and Antimicrobial Resistance......Page 50
Pathogenic E. coli......Page 51
Introduction......Page 52
Antibiotics Used for Treatment of Food-Producing Species......Page 53
Antimicrobial Therapeutics......Page 55
Therapeutic Use in Farm Animals......Page 56
Withdrawal Period......Page 57
Antimicrobial Resistance......Page 58
Introduction......Page 59
APPENDIX 1. ABBREVIATIONS......Page 60
Introduction......Page 72
Automation of the Primary Processes......Page 73
Cutting operations......Page 76
Boning operations......Page 77
Conclusion......Page 78
The Bacon Pig......Page 79
Brine Ingredients and Their Function in the Manufacture of Bacon Sides......Page 80
Microbiology of Wiltshire Bacon......Page 81
Microbial Spoilage of Wiltshire Bacon......Page 82
Cutting of Sides and Smoking......Page 83
Processing of Bacon Cuts in Europe......Page 84
Processing of Bacon Cuts in Europe......Page 85
Microbiology of Bacon Cuts......Page 86
Innovation and New Product Development......Page 87
Introduction......Page 88
Introduction......Page 89
Reversible and Irreversible Attachment......Page 90
Microcolony Development and Biofilm Maturation......Page 91
Factors affecting biofilm formation......Page 93
BookmarkTitle:......Page 94
Detection of Biofilms......Page 95
Factors Affecting Survival of Biofilms......Page 96
Novel Control Strategies......Page 97
Introduction......Page 98
Introduction......Page 99
Nutrient Competition......Page 100
Antimicrobial Activity of Bacteriocins......Page 101
Fermented Sausages......Page 102
Fresh Meat......Page 103
Conclusion......Page 104
Methods of Cloning......Page 105
Methods of Cloning......Page 106
Nuclear Cloning Methodology......Page 107
Complete Reprogramming......Page 110
Long-Term Consequences......Page 111
Genetic and Phenotypic Identity of Clones......Page 112
Dissemination of Genetic Gain......Page 113
Animal Conservation......Page 114
Conclusions......Page 115
Introduction......Page 116
Introduction......Page 117
Transgenic Pigs Expressing Somatotropin Genes......Page 118
Muscle morphology......Page 119
Carcass composition and meat tenderness......Page 120
Muscle morphology......Page 121
Expression of a Transforming Growth Factor......Page 122
Bovine and Ovine with Growth-Related Transgenes......Page 123
Introduction......Page 124
Introduction......Page 125
Management Issues......Page 126
Compounds Responsible for Boar Taint......Page 127
Sensory Assessment......Page 128
Laboratory Methods for the Measurement of Malodorous Compounds......Page 129
Sorting Carcasses on the Slaughter-Line......Page 130
Introduction......Page 131
Introduction......Page 132
Skatole and Related Compounds......Page 133
Factors Affecting Androstenone Levels......Page 135
Factors Affecting Skatole Levels......Page 136
Overall Conclusions......Page 137
Liver......Page 139
Heart......Page 140
Tripe......Page 143
Meat Extract......Page 144
Jellied Products......Page 145
Spleen......Page 146
Introduction......Page 147
Trade in Hides and Leather......Page 148
Hide harvesting......Page 149
Hide Curing......Page 150
Trimming......Page 152
Sorting......Page 153
Storage/Shipment......Page 154
Dehairing......Page 155
Bating......Page 156
Splitting and Shaving......Page 157
Drying......Page 158
Physical Properties of Leather......Page 159
Summary......Page 160
Introduction......Page 162
Processing......Page 163
The Rendering Process......Page 164
Statutory Requirements for Rendering......Page 166
Industrial Uses of Animal By-Products......Page 167
Inedible Tallow......Page 168
Yellow Grease......Page 170
Summary: Animal Fats......Page 172
Meat and Bone Meal......Page 173
Fish Meal......Page 174
Trade in Hides and Leather......Page 175
Microbial Population and Process Severity......Page 176
Heat and Mass Transfer during Canning......Page 177
D- and z-values......Page 178
Implications for Meat Quality......Page 180
Traditional Carcass Boning and Hot Boning......Page 181
Traditional Carcass Boning and Hot Boning......Page 182
Chilling......Page 184
Beef......Page 185
Poultry......Page 186
Introduction and Historical Background......Page 187
Introduction and Historical Background......Page 188
Traceability forward and backwards......Page 189
Identification of Cattle when Supplied to the Abattoir......Page 190
Traceability and Identification of Meat and Meat Products......Page 191
Traceability of Pork......Page 192
Conclusion......Page 194
Statistical Requirements of Analysis Techniques......Page 195
Introduction......Page 196
Nitrite......Page 197
Analysis of Nitrite and Nitrate......Page 199
Nitrosamine Formation......Page 201
Introduction......Page 202
Fat......Page 203
Fatty Acids......Page 204
Protein......Page 205
Hydrolysis......Page 206
Glycogen......Page 207
Vitamin A......Page 208
Vitamin A......Page 209
Vitamin D......Page 210
Water-Soluble Vitamins......Page 211
Minerals......Page 212
Enzymes......Page 213
Introduction......Page 214
Introduction......Page 215
Residues Are Not Stable Substances......Page 216
Sampling and Sample Processing......Page 217
Designing an Analytical Method......Page 219
Validation......Page 221
The Future in Residue Analysis......Page 222
Factors Influencing the Chemical Composition of Meat......Page 224
Introduction......Page 225
Simple extraction......Page 226
Volumetric Analysis......Page 227
NI Spectrometry......Page 228
Chromatographic Methods......Page 229
Liquid Chromatography......Page 230
High-resolution Methods......Page 231
Standard Methods......Page 232
Introduction......Page 233
Current Labelling Requirements......Page 234
Test Sample Preparation......Page 235
Test Procedures......Page 236
Fat......Page 239
Performance of Analytical Methods......Page 240
Solvent-based Extractions......Page 241
Rapid Methods for Fat......Page 242
Rapid Methods for Protein......Page 243
Near-Infrared (NIR)......Page 244
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)......Page 245
Introduction......Page 246
Statistical Requirements of Analysis Techniques......Page 247
Selecting the Test Samples......Page 248
Sample Size......Page 249
Acceptance Sampling......Page 250
Introduction......Page 251
Standard Methods......Page 252
From AOAC International......Page 253
From NMKL......Page 254
Testing materials used in collaborative studies......Page 255
Evaluation of the method: A method can be approved as acceptable•......Page 256
How Methods Come Into Being......Page 257
Performance of Analytical Methods......Page 258
Introduction......Page 259
Sources of Lipid in Meat......Page 260
Lipid Accumulation in Adipose Tissue......Page 261
Lipid Accumulation in Meat......Page 262
Conjugated Linoleic Acid......Page 265
Contribution of Intramuscular Adipose Tissue to the Concentration of Cholesterol in Meat......Page 267
Fatty Acid Composition and Melting Point of Lipids......Page 269
What Is pH?......Page 272
Myoglobin......Page 273
Carboxymyoglobin......Page 275
Cooked Meat Pigments......Page 276
Cured Meat Pigments......Page 277
Effects on Meat Palatability of Fat or Lipids......Page 280
Effects on Meat Palatability of Fat or Lipids......Page 281
Four Theories of Marbling or Lipid Contribution to Meat Tenderness......Page 282
Use of Marbling or Intramuscular Fat to Segment Meat for Expected Palatability Differences......Page 283
Marbling or Intramuscular Fat as an Indirect Measure of Meat Tenderness......Page 284
Muscle Fibre or Lean Components Contribution to Meat Palatability......Page 286
Connective Tissue Influences on Meat Palatability......Page 287
Chemical Development and Reactions of Meat Flavour......Page 288
Species-Specific Flavour of Meat......Page 289
Lipids and Off-Flavour Development......Page 290
Importance of Emulsified Comminuted Products......Page 291
What Is pH?......Page 292
Importance of pH Changes and Ultimate pH in Meat......Page 293
Principal Methods......Page 294
Calibration......Page 295
Introduction......Page 296
Definition of Functionality......Page 297
Effect of Phosphates on Water Binding......Page 298
Effect of Ionic Strength on Protein Solubility......Page 299
Definition......Page 300
Effect of Processing Protocols on Gelation......Page 301
Gelling Properties from Different Muscles and Fibre Types......Page 302
Proteins Involved in Emulsion Formation and Stabilization......Page 303
Introduction......Page 304
Introduction......Page 305
Contractile Proteins: Actin and Myosin......Page 306
Effect of pH......Page 307
Effect of Rigor......Page 308
Effect of Temperature......Page 309
Effect of Phosphates......Page 310
Ionic Strength......Page 311
Myoglobin......Page 312
Factors Influencing the Chemical Composition of Meat......Page 313
Moisture (Water)......Page 315
Proteins and Non-Protein Nitrogen Compounds......Page 316
Lipids/Fat/Triacylglycerols......Page 317
Carbohydrates......Page 319
Inorganic Matter (Minerals)......Page 320
Definition of Functionality......Page 321
Importance of Emulsified Comminuted Products......Page 322
Meat Emulsion Matrix......Page 323
Emulsion/Batter Stability......Page 324
Fat Characteristics and Processing Conditions......Page 325
Low-Fat Meat Batter......Page 326
Functions of Non-Meat Proteins in Comminuted Meat Products......Page 327
Functions of Non-Meat Proteins in Comminuted Meat Products......Page 328
Gelation......Page 329
Milk Proteins......Page 331
Mechanically Separated Meat......Page 332
Soy Proteins......Page 333
Other Vegetable Proteins......Page 334
Introduction......Page 335
Emulsion Formation......Page 336
Sweeteners......Page 337
Reducing Compounds......Page 338
Water or Ice......Page 339
Flavouring Agents......Page 340
Miscellaneous......Page 341
Classification in Europe......Page 343
Introduction......Page 344
Characteristics and Components of Spices......Page 345
Applications of Spices......Page 347
Usage......Page 348
Emulsion Formation......Page 349
Classification in Europe......Page 350
Grading in the United States......Page 352
Grading in Australia......Page 353
Meat quality score......Page 354
Damage indication by superscript stamp......Page 356
Introduction......Page 357
Introduction......Page 358
Prediction of EUROP Conformation and Fatness......Page 359
Prediction of Saleable Yield......Page 360
Predicting Palatability with VIA......Page 361
Introduction......Page 362
Introduction......Page 363
Accuracy of Reference......Page 364
Noninvasive/Split Line Methods......Page 365
Accuracy......Page 366
Summary......Page 367
Structure and Function......Page 368
Structure and Function......Page 369
Composition......Page 370
Method of Measurement......Page 371
Age, Breed and Muscle Type......Page 372
Structure......Page 373
Endomysium......Page 374
Hypothetical roles of connective tissue in meat quality......Page 375
Catabolism Post Mortem......Page 377
Introduction......Page 378
Variability in Tenderness and Ageing......Page 381
Biochemical Factors Affecting Ageing......Page 382
Other Factors Affecting Ageing......Page 383
Factors That Reduce Ageing......Page 384
Packaging......Page 385
Stress and Meat Quality......Page 386
Introduction......Page 387
Contraction......Page 388
Influence of ATP......Page 389
Influence on Water-Holding Capacity......Page 390
Effects of Rigor and Ageing Conditions on Texture and Colour......Page 392
Effects of Rigor and Ageing Conditions on Texture and Colour......Page 393
Halothane sensitivity......Page 395
Stress-induced PSE meat......Page 396
Other Species......Page 397
Double Muscling......Page 398
Muscle Degeneration......Page 399
Introduction......Page 400
Catabolism Post Mortem......Page 401
Structural Changes Post Mortem......Page 403
Conditioning and Ageing......Page 404
Introduction......Page 405
Stress and Meat Quality......Page 406
Transportation......Page 407
Stunning and Exsanguination......Page 408
Carcass Dressing......Page 409
Chilling......Page 410
Changes in Meat during Heating......Page 411
Changes in Meat during Heating......Page 412
Roasting......Page 413
Boiling/Stewing/Water Bath......Page 414
Resting Period after Cooking......Page 415
Effect of Cooking on Texture......Page 416
Effect of Cooking on Weight Loss......Page 417
Introduction......Page 418
Cured Meat Colour......Page 419
Cured Meat Flavour......Page 421
Sweeteners......Page 422
Brine Preparation......Page 423
Pickle Curing (Immersion Curing)......Page 424
Multineedle injection......Page 425
Critical Control Factors during the Brine Curing Processes......Page 426
Summary......Page 427
Action of Proteases during Dry Curing......Page 428
Action of Lipases during Dry Curing......Page 430
Colour......Page 431
Processing Control......Page 432
Cured Meat Colour......Page 434
Introduction......Page 435
Salt......Page 436
Polyphosphates......Page 437
Brine Preparation......Page 438
Tumbling or Massaging......Page 439
Hams......Page 440
Boneless, sectioned/chopped and formed hams......Page 441
Dry-cured hams......Page 442
Corned Beef......Page 443
Frankfurters, Cured Sausages and Comminuted Meat Products......Page 444
Action of Proteases during Dry Curing......Page 446
Cost and Availability of Labour......Page 447
System......Page 448
Theory......Page 449
Chicken and Turkey......Page 450
Pork......Page 451
Beef......Page 453
Hot, Warm and Cold Processing......Page 455
Rail Boning......Page 456
Hindquarter (......Page 457
Forequarter (......Page 458
Bone-In Cutting of Animals......Page 459
Safety and Ergonomic Issues with Cutting and Boning......Page 460
Cost and Availability of Labour......Page 461
Introduction......Page 462
Decontamination Systems Presently in Commercial Use......Page 463
Steam Vacuuming......Page 464
Carcass Chilling......Page 465
Evaluation of Decontamination Interventions on Commercially Processed Beef Carcasses......Page 466
Introduction......Page 469
Introduction......Page 470
Genetic Background......Page 471
Physiology and Metabolism......Page 472
Reproduction, Growth and Management......Page 473
Carcass and Meat Quality......Page 474
Introduction......Page 476
Introduction......Page 477
Drying of Solid Foods......Page 479
Belt Dryers......Page 481
Freeze-Dryers......Page 482
Drying of Solutions and Suspensions......Page 483
Quality of Dried Products......Page 485
History......Page 487
Events during Electrical Stimulation......Page 488
Electrical Stimulation Systems......Page 489
Electrical Stimulation Parameters......Page 490
Other Meat Quality Responses to Stimulation......Page 491
Fall in pH upon Stimulation......Page 492
Changes in the Rate of pH Fall (dpH/dt) upon Stimulation......Page 493
Start of Tenderization......Page 494
Structural Effects......Page 495
Conclusions......Page 496
Introduction......Page 498
General......Page 499
Energy......Page 502
Data for Contamination and Consumption of Resources in Meat Processing......Page 503
Waste water......Page 504
Odour......Page 505
Means for Reducing the Environmental Impact......Page 506
Concluding Remarks......Page 507
The Traditional Method of Making Biltong......Page 508
Developments in Agriculture......Page 509
Water Eutrophication......Page 510
Nitrate......Page 512
Greenhouse Gases (Non-CO2)......Page 513
Concluding Remarks......Page 514
Introduction......Page 515
The Traditional Method of Making Biltong......Page 516
Introduction......Page 517
Introduction......Page 518
Classification of Traditional Chinese Meat Products......Page 519
Conclusion......Page 520
Schwarzwälder Schinken (Black Forest Ham)......Page 521
Schwarzwälder Schinken (Black Forest Ham)......Page 522
Ammerländer Knochenschinken......Page 524
Greußener Salami......Page 525
Emulsion-Type Sausages......Page 526
Thüringer Rotwurst......Page 527
Nürnberger Bratwurst, Nürnberger Rostbratwurst......Page 528
Dry-Cured Ham......Page 529
Dry-Cured Ham......Page 530
Spanish Chorizo......Page 531
Middle East Meat Products......Page 532
Middle East Meat Products......Page 533
Traditional Meat Dishes......Page 534
Restructured Jerky......Page 535
Restructured Jerky......Page 536
Polish Meat Products......Page 537
Polish Meat Products......Page 538
Product Designation......Page 539
Residual Blood......Page 540
Bruises......Page 541
Cold Extrusion......Page 542
Cold Extrusion......Page 543
Single-Screw Extruders......Page 544
Meat Analogues......Page 546
Quality of Extruded Food......Page 547
Economics of Extrusion......Page 548
The Processing of Fermented Sausages......Page 549
BookmarkTitle:......Page 550
Micrococcaceae......Page 551
BookmarkTitle:......Page 552
Modelling the Nature and Dynamics of Ripening......Page 553
Introduction......Page 556
Introduction......Page 557
Nondestructive inspection of fish freshness by NIR and 31P-NMR......Page 561
Volatile compounds produced by reduction processes......Page 562
Rigor index......Page 563
Electrical sensors......Page 564
Management of Physical Safety (HACCP and GMP)......Page 566
Management of Physical Safety (HACCP and GMP)......Page 567
X-Ray Contrast......Page 568
Electromagnetic Contrast......Page 570
Testing and Documentation......Page 573
Legislation......Page 574
Overview of Functional Foods......Page 576
Overview of Functional Foods......Page 577
Functional Meat Products......Page 578
Histidyl Dipeptides......Page 580
Meat Protein-Derived Bioactive Peptides......Page 581
Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics......Page 582
Conclusions and Future Prospects......Page 583
What is Genome Analysis?......Page 585
Porcine Genome Sequencing......Page 586
Bovine Genome Sequencing......Page 587
Post Genomics and Functional Genomics in Farm Animals......Page 588
Morphology of BAT in Newborn Livestock Species......Page 590
Specific Gene Expression in BAT......Page 591
Hyperplasia......Page 592
Hypertrophy......Page 593
Anabolic Lipid Metabolism......Page 595
Catabolic Lipid Metabolism......Page 596
Control of Lipid Metabolism and Adipose Tissue Growth......Page 597
General Effects of Metabolic Modifiers......Page 598
Embryonic and Fetal Growth......Page 599
Insulin......Page 600
Placental Growth Factors......Page 601
Insulin......Page 602
Recently Identified Factors Controlling Growth......Page 603
Summary......Page 604
Introduction......Page 605
Patterns of Carcass Growth......Page 606
Patterns of Muscle Growth......Page 607
Gender Differences in Growth Patterns of Body Constituents......Page 608
Nutrition Effects on Growth Patterns......Page 609
Growth Physiology Concepts......Page 610
General Effects of Metabolic Modifiers......Page 611
Delivery to Target Cell Types......Page 612
Effects of Steroids on Skeletal Muscle......Page 614
Practical Considerations of Steroid Use......Page 616
Comparative Efficacy of Steroids and BAAs......Page 617
Summary......Page 618
Allometry......Page 620
Myoblasts and Myotubes......Page 621
Hyperplasia Versus Hypertrophy......Page 622
Tapered Myofibres......Page 623
Changes in Myofibre Numbers......Page 624
Morphology of BAT in Newborn Livestock Species......Page 625
Growth Physiology Concepts......Page 626
Genetic effects......Page 627
Physiology of Skeletal Muscle Growth......Page 628
Effects of Somatotropin on Muscle Growth......Page 629
Effects of Androgenic Steroids on Skeletal Muscle Growth......Page 630
Gender effects......Page 631
Age and gender effects......Page 632
Summary......Page 633
Embryonic and Fetal Growth......Page 634
Basic information and documentation......Page 635
BookmarkTitle:......Page 637
Hazard analysis......Page 639
Risk management......Page 640
Risk assessment......Page 642
Future Prospects......Page 644
Introduction......Page 645
Introduction......Page 646
Brine Preparation and Injection......Page 647
Tumbling–Massaging......Page 648
Cooking......Page 649
Preparation for Marketing......Page 650
Introduction......Page 651
Introduction......Page 652
Shape of the Hams and Types of Cut......Page 653
Salting Methodology......Page 654
Resting Period......Page 655
The Development of New Quick-Maturation Products......Page 656
Introduction......Page 657
The Precursors of Meat Flavour......Page 658
The Breakdown of Individual Substances......Page 659
Interaction between Lipid Oxidation and Maillard Reaction Products......Page 661
Other Effects......Page 662
Flavour of Nitrite-Cured Meat......Page 663
Introduction......Page 666
Introduction......Page 667
The Maillard Reaction......Page 668
Strecker Reaction......Page 669
Meat Flavour Compounds from the Maillard Reaction......Page 671
Oxazoles and oxazolines......Page 673
Polysulfur heterocyclics......Page 674
Sulfur compounds from furan-like components......Page 675
Meat Flavour Compounds from Lipid–Maillard Interactions......Page 676
Maillard Browning......Page 678
Summary......Page 679
Introduction......Page 681
Introduction......Page 682
Effects of Heating on Meat Microstructure......Page 683
Texture and Tenderness of Heated Meat......Page 684
The Precursors of Meat Flavour......Page 685
Introduction......Page 686
WOF as a Consequence of Lipid Oxidation......Page 687
Sensory and Chemical Analysis in Relation to WOF......Page 688
Primary Antioxidants: Synthetic and Natural......Page 690
Natural and Liquid Smoke......Page 691
Flavour Masking......Page 692
Sterilization......Page 693
Sterilization......Page 694
BookmarkTitle:......Page 695
Steam......Page 696
BookmarkTitle:......Page 697
Ohmic Heating......Page 698
Singeing......Page 700
BookmarkTitle:......Page 701
BookmarkTitle:......Page 702
Rigor Mortis, Electrical Stimulation, and Hot-Processing Systems......Page 703
Microbiology......Page 704
Fresh Pork Primals and Subprimals......Page 705
Microbiology......Page 706
Poultry Hot-Boning and Chilling Systems......Page 707
Conclusions......Page 709
Protein......Page 710
Introduction......Page 711
Colorectal Cancer......Page 712
Iron......Page 713
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 714
Conclusion......Page 715
Introduction......Page 716
Introduction......Page 717
Ischaemic Heart Disease......Page 718
Trans-Fatty Acids......Page 719
Hypertension......Page 720
Conclusion......Page 721
Introduction......Page 722
Protein......Page 723
Fatty Acids......Page 724
Coronary Heart Disease......Page 725
Colon cancer......Page 726
Introduction......Page 727
Introduction......Page 728
Iron......Page 729
Vitamin D......Page 730
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)......Page 731
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)......Page 732
Introduction......Page 733
Introduction......Page 734
Food Hierarchies......Page 735
Semivegetarianism and Reduced Meat-Eating......Page 736
Taste......Page 737
Health and Food Safety......Page 738
Summary......Page 740
BookmarkTitle:......Page 741
BookmarkTitle:......Page 742
Total Quality......Page 743
Stress Reactions......Page 745
Industrialized Countries......Page 746
Developing Countries......Page 747
Conclusion......Page 748
Infection......Page 750
Swine Vesicular Disease......Page 751
Blue-tongue......Page 752
Emerging diseases......Page 753
Unconventional Agents......Page 754
Veterinary inspection......Page 755
Other measures......Page 756
Atrophic Rhinitis......Page 757
Atrophic Rhinitis......Page 758
Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter spp.)......Page 760
Influenza......Page 761
Marek’s Disease (Herpesvirus spp.)......Page 762
Tetanus (Lockjaw; Clostridium tetani)......Page 763
Enteric Septicaemia of Catfish (Edwardsiellosis; Edwardsiella ictaluri)......Page 764
Whirling Disease (Black Tail; Myxobolus cerebralis)......Page 765
Irradiation of Meat and Meat Products......Page 766
Irradiation of Meat and Meat Products......Page 767
Standards to Be Met......Page 769
Procedure......Page 771
Preparatory steps......Page 772
Benefits......Page 773
Equipment......Page 774
Prospects......Page 775
Measuring PSE......Page 777
Measuring PSE and Marbling in Pork......Page 778
Electrochemical Measurements; pH......Page 779
PSE and Water-Holding Capacity......Page 780
Fat Softness in Pork......Page 781
Wet Chemical Analysis; Boar Taint......Page 782
BookmarkTitle:......Page 783
Domestication of Cattle......Page 784
Domestication of Goats......Page 785
Behavioural Changes of Animals under Domestication......Page 786
The Future of Domestication of Meat Animals......Page 787
Reasons for Specifications......Page 788
Conventional chilling......Page 789
Freezing......Page 790
Thawing and Tempering......Page 791
Transport......Page 792
Domestic Handling......Page 793
Introduction......Page 794
Reasons for Specifications......Page 795
Specification Attributes......Page 796
Processing Characteristics......Page 797
Assessment of Product Specification......Page 798
The Future for Product Specifications......Page 799
Conventional chilling......Page 800
Introduction......Page 801
Overland Transport......Page 802
Eutectic plates......Page 803
Design and operation of local distribution vehicles......Page 804
Initial food temperature......Page 805
Combination of factors......Page 806
Introduction......Page 807
Introduction......Page 808
Market Forces......Page 809
Modern Wet Markets......Page 810
Introduction......Page 811
Introduction......Page 812
Price Discovery......Page 813
Pricing Efficiency......Page 816
Meat Pricing Systems in Transition......Page 817
Public Policy Issues in Meat Pricing Systems......Page 818
Meat Pricing Systems of the Future......Page 819
Introduction......Page 820
Introduction......Page 821
Introduction......Page 829
Introduction......Page 830
Names for Meat Mechanically Removed from Bone......Page 831
Composition......Page 833
Palatability......Page 835
Introduction......Page 836
Introduction......Page 837
Spoilage Microflora......Page 838
Sources and Extent of Animal Contamination......Page 839
The Dressing Process......Page 841
The Chilling Process......Page 842
Processes to Reduce Microbial Contamination on Meat Carcasses and Cuts......Page 843
Implementation of Systems for Process Control......Page 844
Microbial Testing, Microbiological Criteria and Food Safety Objectives......Page 845
Introduction......Page 847
Introduction......Page 848
Reverse Hybridization......Page 849
Introduction......Page 850
Nested PCR......Page 851
Random amplification of unknown sequences......Page 852
PCR coupled with denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis......Page 853
Multilocus Sequence Typing......Page 854
Counting Chambers......Page 855
Introduction......Page 856
Objectives of Indicators......Page 857
Identification of Contaminated Raw Materials......Page 859
Adequacy of Processes to Destroy Pathogens......Page 860
Conclusions......Page 861
Characterization of Salmonella......Page 862
Introduction......Page 863
Immunological Assays......Page 864
Nucleic Acid-Based Methods......Page 866
Conclusions......Page 868
Introduction......Page 869
Introduction......Page 870
Sample Types......Page 871
Sample Numbers and Size......Page 873
Sample Timing......Page 875
Laboratory Considerations......Page 876
Sample Preparation......Page 878
Aerobic and psychrotrophic plate count......Page 879
Enterobacteriaceae......Page 881
Resuscitation of injured bacteria......Page 883
Clostridium perfringens......Page 885
Yersinia spp.......Page 887
Introduction......Page 888
Counting Chambers......Page 889
Colony (Plate) Count Methods......Page 890
Dry Film Methods......Page 891
Most Probable Number (MPN)......Page 892
Culture Medium......Page 893
Introduction......Page 894
Aeromonads in Meats......Page 895
Inactivation......Page 896
Identification......Page 897
Epidemiology......Page 899
Introduction......Page 900
Introduction......Page 901
Isolation and Identification......Page 902
Characteristics of Food-Borne/Meat-Borne Disease......Page 903
Mechanism of Pathogenicity......Page 904
Control and Preventive Measures......Page 905
Aeromonads in Meats......Page 906
Characteristics of C. botulinum......Page 907
The Mouse Bioassay......Page 909
Mechanism of Pathogenicity......Page 910
Temperature......Page 911
Redox Potential and Atmosphere......Page 912
Competing Microorganisms......Page 913
Characteristics of C. perfringens......Page 914
Characteristics of C. perfringens......Page 915
Conventional Methods......Page 916
Characteristics of C. perfringens Food-Borne Disease......Page 917
Reservoirs of C. perfringens......Page 918
Control and Preventive Measures......Page 919
Characteristics of Thermotolerant Campylobacter......Page 920
Characteristics of the Organism......Page 921
Isolation and Identification......Page 922
Mechanism of Pathogenicity......Page 923
Epidemiology......Page 924
Control and Preventive Measures......Page 925
Characteristics of C. botulinum......Page 926
Introduction......Page 927
Conventional Methods......Page 928
Rapid Detection Methods......Page 929
Subtyping Methods......Page 930
Listeriosis in Humans......Page 931
Entry and Colonization of the Host......Page 932
Incidence in Meats......Page 933
Control and Preventive Measures......Page 935
Characteristics of the Organism......Page 937
The TSEs......Page 938
Animal TSEs......Page 939
The Search for the TSE Causative Agent......Page 940
Interspecies Homology of Primary Structure......Page 941
Prion Propagation and Infectivity......Page 943
The Origins of BSE......Page 944
The Link between BSE and (nv) CJD......Page 945
Introduction......Page 946
Characterization of Salmonella......Page 947
National Surveillance and Control Programmes......Page 948
Characteristics of the Organism......Page 949
Introduction......Page 950
The Toxin......Page 951
Detection and Enumeration......Page 952
Typing......Page 953
Control and Preventive Measures......Page 954
Introduction......Page 955
Characteristics of Thermotolerant Campylobacter......Page 956
Traditional Methods......Page 957
Characteristics of Campylobacteriosis......Page 958
Epidemiology......Page 959
Control Strategies on Farms......Page 960
Restaurants......Page 961
Introduction......Page 962
Introduction......Page 963
Identification and Enumeration of Yeasts and Moulds in Foods......Page 965
Importance and Occurrence of Yeasts in Meats......Page 968
Importance and Occurrence of Moulds in Meats......Page 970
Conclusions......Page 973
The TSEs......Page 974
Characteristics of the Organism......Page 975
Mechanism of Pathogenicity......Page 977
Enrichment......Page 978
Identification......Page 979
Control Measures......Page 980
Introduction......Page 981
Introduction......Page 982
Advantages of Mincing......Page 983
Microbial Spoilage......Page 984
An Example Model Framework......Page 985
Examples of Algebraic, Differential Equation and Computer Models......Page 987
A Model to Describe the Temperature and Time Dependence of the Meat Ageing Process......Page 988
Introduction......Page 989
Introduction......Page 990
Preventive Measures and Intervention Strategies......Page 991
Description of Microbial Growth......Page 992
Quantitative approach......Page 993
Variation of key factors......Page 994
Limitations and Current Challenges......Page 996
Introduction......Page 997
Introduction......Page 998
Model Scope......Page 999
Meat Product Chilling and Freezing Times......Page 1000
Meat Product Chilling and Freezing Heat Loads......Page 1003
Structural Types......Page 1006
Myosin Isoform Types......Page 1007
Comparison of Typing by Different Methods......Page 1008
BookmarkTitle:......Page 1009
Relationship of Fibre Type to Sensory Quality and Instrument Measures......Page 1010
Fibre Size......Page 1011
Introduction......Page 1012
Introduction......Page 1013
Carcass Muscle......Page 1014
Muscle Connective Tissue......Page 1017
Muscle Fibre Mechanics......Page 1022
Muscle Fibre Metabolism......Page 1024
Muscle Contraction......Page 1027
Carcass Fat......Page 1028
Carcass Bone......Page 1030
Introduction......Page 1033
Monitoring NDMA formation in an artificial digestion system......Page 1034
Inhibition of NDMA formation and nitrite-scavenging ability by Prep-HPLC fractions......Page 1035
Results and discussion......Page 1036
Confirmation by MS and 13C NMR......Page 1037
References......Page 1038
Concern over Fat......Page 1040
Role of Fat in Meat Products......Page 1041
Strategies for Fat Reduction......Page 1042
Nutritional Composition......Page 1043
Nutritional Enhancement of Meat Products......Page 1044
Labelling of Meat Products with Nutrient Claims......Page 1045
Summary......Page 1046
Anatomical distinction......Page 1047
Retention of Protein and Lipid in Pigs......Page 1048
Response to Nutrient Supply......Page 1049
Influence of Nutrition upon the Eating Quality of Pig Meat......Page 1050
Dietary Amino Acids in Pig Feeds......Page 1051
Conclusion......Page 1054
Energy......Page 1055
Energy......Page 1056
Fats and Fatty Acids......Page 1057
Minerals......Page 1058
Ingredients Used in Poultry Feed Formulations......Page 1059
Feeding Programmes......Page 1060
Level and source of dietary fats......Page 1062
Off-flavours......Page 1063
Summary and Conclusions......Page 1064
Anatomical distinction......Page 1065
Feed Digestion in Ruminants......Page 1067
Beef Production......Page 1070
General Aspects of Feeding Ruminants......Page 1072
Performance of On-Line Methods......Page 1073
Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIR)......Page 1074
BookmarkTitle:......Page 1075
NEUGAT......Page 1076
X-Ray Based Contaminant Detection......Page 1077
Summary......Page 1078
Protective Functions and Labels......Page 1080
Polymer Chemistry......Page 1081
Polyesters......Page 1082
Coextrusion......Page 1083
Cook-in Packaging......Page 1084
Flexible Film Package Defects......Page 1085
Introduction......Page 1086
Introduction......Page 1087
Vacuum Packaging......Page 1088
Vacuum chamber......Page 1089
Snorkel......Page 1090
Pi-Vac......Page 1091
Thermoforming......Page 1092
Mother bag flow wrap......Page 1093
Two-phase packaging......Page 1094
Introduction......Page 1095
Colour Properties......Page 1096
MAP Principles: Gas......Page 1097
Controlled-Atmosphere Packaging......Page 1098
Oxygen Scavenging......Page 1099
Enhancement of Meat......Page 1100
Key Factors for Success in Product Quality Using MAP and CAP......Page 1101
Introduction......Page 1102
Introduction......Page 1103
Consumer Reaction......Page 1104
Types of Trays......Page 1105
Management Practices and Systems to Enhance Overwrapping......Page 1106
Improving Overwrap Systems......Page 1107
Other Packaging Systems......Page 1108
Measurement of Vacuum......Page 1109
Measurement of Vacuum......Page 1110
Blooming and Fresh Meat Colour......Page 1111
Discoloration of Vacuum-Packaged Meat......Page 1112
Choosing Vacuum or Gas Packaging......Page 1113
Benefits of Vacuum Packaging......Page 1114
Vacuum Packaging of Larger Cuts......Page 1115
Choosing Proper Bag Size......Page 1116
Introduction......Page 1117
Epidemiology......Page 1118
Clinical Signs and Diagnosis......Page 1119
Clinical Signs and Treatment......Page 1120
Clinical Signs and Treatment......Page 1121
Parasitic Fly Infestations......Page 1122
Clinical Signs and Treatment......Page 1123
Species Involved and Life Cycles......Page 1124
Species Involved and Life Cycles......Page 1125
Arrested Larval Development (ALD)......Page 1126
Bovine ostertagiosis......Page 1127
Treatment, Control and Anthelmintic Resistance......Page 1128
Swine......Page 1129
Treatment and Control......Page 1130
Patent – An Exclusive Right......Page 1131
Patent – An Exclusive Right......Page 1132
Patent Strategy......Page 1133
Patenting in the Meat Technology Field......Page 1134
Products......Page 1136
Apparatus......Page 1138
Opposition......Page 1139
Liquid-in-Glass (or Liquid-Filled) Thermometers......Page 1140
Introduction......Page 1141
Psychrometers (Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers)......Page 1142
Selection of Hygrometers......Page 1143
Two-pressure RH generator......Page 1144
Dielectric Moisture Sensor......Page 1145
Types of Anemometers......Page 1146
Calibration of Anemometers......Page 1148
Introduction......Page 1149
Liquid-in-Glass (or Liquid-Filled) Thermometers......Page 1150
Thermocouples......Page 1151
Infrared Thermometers......Page 1154
Thermometer Calibration......Page 1155
Measuring Temperatures in the Meat Industry......Page 1156
Introduction......Page 1157
Introduction......Page 1158
Collection and Loading......Page 1159
Transport and Off-Loading......Page 1160
Lairaging at the Abattoir......Page 1161
Movement Out of the Lairage to Stunning......Page 1163
Effects of Pre-Slaughter Handling on Meat Quality......Page 1164
Summary and Conclusion......Page 1166
The Benefits of Antibiotic Growth Promoters (AGPs)......Page 1167
Antibiotics Allowed as AGPs......Page 1168
Impact on Resistance of Termination of the Use of AGPs......Page 1169
Managing without AGPs......Page 1170
Legislation, Standards and Codes of Practice......Page 1171
Introduction......Page 1172
Beta-Agonists as Feed Additives......Page 1173
Safety of Feeding Beta-Agonists to Meat Animals......Page 1175
The Benefits of Antibiotic Growth Promoters (AGPs)......Page 1176
Cattle and Sheep......Page 1177
Pigs......Page 1179
Physicochemical Characteristics......Page 1180
Final Remarks......Page 1181
Introduction......Page 1182
Introduction......Page 1183
SPF Herds......Page 1184
Serology......Page 1185
Sources of Infection......Page 1186
Consumer Benefit......Page 1187
Legislation, Standards and Codes of Practice......Page 1188
What is Animal Welfare?......Page 1189
Housing and Management......Page 1190
Behavioural Deprivation......Page 1191
Health Indicators......Page 1192
Communicative behaviours......Page 1193
Physiological Indicators......Page 1194
Introduction......Page 1195
Guidelines and Regulation in Organic Production......Page 1196
Pork Production......Page 1197
Extensive Suckler and Sheep Production......Page 1199
Conclusion and Perspectives......Page 1200
Why Substrates Are Coated......Page 1202
The Role of Frying in Coating Systems......Page 1203
Batter Applicators......Page 1204
Batter Mixers......Page 1205
Breading Applicators......Page 1206
Common Design Goals......Page 1207
Key Control Points in the Performance of a Coating Line......Page 1208
Continuous Injectors......Page 1210
Accumulator Tanks......Page 1211
Introduction......Page 1212
Paddle Mixers......Page 1213
Mincers......Page 1214
Bone Separators......Page 1215
Emulsion Mills......Page 1216
Dicers......Page 1217
Cooking Equipment......Page 1218
Hot-Water and Steam Cookers......Page 1219
Forced-Air Convection Ovens......Page 1221
Wet-Sensor Measurement......Page 1223
Humidity Control......Page 1224
Air Velocity and Air Flow Patterns......Page 1225
Cooking processes......Page 1226
Smoking Equipment......Page 1227
Conclusion......Page 1228
Why Substrates Are Coated......Page 1229
Introduction......Page 1230
Mechanical Conditioning Cycles......Page 1231
Advantages of Mechanical Conditioning......Page 1232
Paddle Mixers......Page 1233
Introduction......Page 1234
Buffalo......Page 1235
Ostrich and Emu......Page 1236
Rabbit......Page 1237
Various Other Species......Page 1238
Chicken Meat Production Systems......Page 1239
Free-Range Systems......Page 1240
Housing......Page 1241
Minimum Ventilation......Page 1242
Feeding System......Page 1243
Litter......Page 1244
House and Bird Management......Page 1245
Introduction......Page 1246
Red Meat Producers and Their Uses......Page 1247
Classification of Production Systems......Page 1248
Comparison and Evaluation of Systems......Page 1249
Evolution of Production Systems......Page 1250
Chicken Meat Production Systems......Page 1251
Introduction......Page 1252
Protein Mining......Page 1257
Mapping of Protein Modifications......Page 1258
Mass Spectrometer Accuracy......Page 1259
Electrospray ionization......Page 1260
Mass Analysers......Page 1261
The Protein Database and Interpretive Software......Page 1263
Final Notes......Page 1264
Definition and Perception of Quality......Page 1265
IKB: An Integrated Quality Assurance Scheme......Page 1266
Inspections and Sanctions......Page 1268
Food Safety......Page 1269
Management......Page 1270
Management......Page 1271
Outlook......Page 1272
Quality Assurance Strategies in the Meat Production Chain......Page 1273
Quality Assurance Strategies in the Meat Production Chain......Page 1274
Process Control......Page 1276
System Control......Page 1277
Approaches to Quality Assurance......Page 1278
Historical Development......Page 1279
Certification......Page 1281
Prospects......Page 1283
Conduction......Page 1285
Convection......Page 1286
Cryogenic Refrigeration......Page 1287
Mechanical Vapour Compression Refrigeration......Page 1288
Other Types of Primary Refrigeration System......Page 1290
The Chilling Process......Page 1291
The Chilling Process......Page 1292
Temperature Profiles and the Thermal Centre......Page 1293
Chilling Methods......Page 1294
Temperature Profiles in Freezing......Page 1296
Designing Refrigeration Applications......Page 1297
Red Meat......Page 1299
Plate Freezing......Page 1300
Vacuum......Page 1301
Air......Page 1302
Eutectic Plates......Page 1303
Frozen Wrapped......Page 1304
Introduction......Page 1305
Introduction......Page 1306
The Freezing Process......Page 1307
Poultry and Poultry Products......Page 1308
Fish and Seafood......Page 1309
Cured and Processed Meats......Page 1310
Summary......Page 1311
Introduction......Page 1312
Physical Aspects of Thawing and Tempering......Page 1313
Microbial Growth......Page 1314
External Heating Methods......Page 1315
Internal Heating Methods......Page 1317
Introduction......Page 1318
BookmarkTitle:......Page 1319
BookmarkTitle:......Page 1320
Restraint......Page 1321
The Future......Page 1323
Pesticides......Page 1324
Pesticides......Page 1325
Dioxins and PCBs......Page 1326
Concentrations in Meat and Fish......Page 1327
Trace Elements......Page 1328
Artificial Radioisotopes......Page 1329
Risk Evaluation of Residues......Page 1330
Risk Evaluation of Residues......Page 1331
Safety Regulations......Page 1332
Contamination of Animal Feed as a Cause of Residues in Food......Page 1334
Analytical Methods for Drug Residue Control......Page 1335
Stilbenes, steroids and resorcylic acid lactones......Page 1336
Antithyroid agents......Page 1337
Nitrofurans and nitroimidazoles Nitrofurans......Page 1338
Quinolones......Page 1339
Aminoglycosides and aminocyclitols......Page 1340
Anthelmintics......Page 1341
Anticoccidials, including nitroimidazoles......Page 1342
Sedatives......Page 1343
Mycotoxins......Page 1345
Introduction......Page 1346
Introduction......Page 1347
Biogenic Amines......Page 1348
Polycyclic Hydrocarbons......Page 1349
Nitrosamines......Page 1350
Residues from Cleaning Agents and Disinfectants......Page 1351
Purpose and Role......Page 1352
Purpose and Role......Page 1353
BookmarkTitle:......Page 1354
Risk Characterization......Page 1355
BookmarkTitle:......Page 1356
Target setting and appropriate level of protection (ALOP)......Page 1357
BookmarkTitle:......Page 1358
Equivalence......Page 1359
Food Safety Objective (FSO)......Page 1360
Risk Communication......Page 1361
Animal Casings......Page 1363
Manufactured Collagen Casings......Page 1365
Cellulose Casings......Page 1366
Introduction......Page 1367
Cooked Sausage Production......Page 1368
Cured Sausage Products......Page 1369
Bockwurst......Page 1371
Raw Materials......Page 1372
Introduction......Page 1373
Low-Acid Fermented Dry Sausages......Page 1374
The Basis for Selection of Starter Cultures......Page 1375
Technology of Dry and Semi-Dry Sausages......Page 1376
Physical, Chemical and Microbiological Changes......Page 1377
Some Factors Contributing to Aroma......Page 1378
Curing Salts and Colour Formation......Page 1379
Mycotoxins......Page 1380
Typical Defects and Their Causes......Page 1381
Comminution Methods......Page 1382
Comminution Methods......Page 1383
Emulsification Procedures......Page 1384
Fat Pre-Emulsions......Page 1385
Hot Dogs......Page 1386
Cooked Sausage Production......Page 1387
Raw Materials......Page 1388
Production and Types of Sausage......Page 1389
Introduction......Page 1392
Introduction......Page 1393
Production......Page 1394
Electrical Stimulation......Page 1395
Packaging and Storage......Page 1396
Conclusions......Page 1397
Applied Ethics and Decision Making......Page 1398
Applied Ethics and Decision Making......Page 1399
Ethics of Stunning......Page 1400
Stunning......Page 1403
First Rump/Butt Skinning......Page 1404
Side Pullers......Page 1405
Tongue Removal......Page 1406
Spinal Cord Removal......Page 1407
Carcass Chilling......Page 1408
Introduction......Page 1409
Deer......Page 1410
Reindeer......Page 1411
Quail......Page 1412
Introduction......Page 1413
Animal Transport, Receiving and Ante-Mortem Inspection......Page 1414
Weighing and Recording......Page 1415
Dehiding......Page 1416
Black Scraping, Carcass Brushing, White Scraping and Polishing......Page 1417
Fin Cutting......Page 1418
Steam pasteurization......Page 1419
Chilling......Page 1420
Unloading......Page 1421
Bleeding......Page 1422
Feather Removal......Page 1423
Evisceration......Page 1424
Inside/Outside Bird Wash......Page 1425
Grading, Weighing and Packaging......Page 1426
Introduction......Page 1427
Stunning......Page 1428
Bleeding......Page 1429
Evisceration......Page 1430
Chilling and Freezing......Page 1431
Sheep and Lamb Carcass Grading......Page 1432
Unloading......Page 1433
Methods for Production of Liquid Smoke Preparations......Page 1434
Chemical Composition of Liquid Smoke Preparations......Page 1435
Methods for Application of Liquid Smoke Preparations......Page 1436
Properties of Liquid Smoke Preparations......Page 1437
Health Aspects Relating to the Use of Liquid Smoke Preparations......Page 1438
Biological Types of Beef Cattle......Page 1439
Introduction......Page 1440
Deposition on Smoked Goods......Page 1441
Antimicrobial Activity......Page 1442
Health Hazards Associated with Smoking of Foods......Page 1443
Smoke Generators......Page 1444
Smoking Procedures......Page 1445
Methods for Production of Liquid Smoke Preparations......Page 1447
Biological Types of Beef Cattle......Page 1448
Propensity to Fatten......Page 1451
Dressing percentage......Page 1452
Quality......Page 1453
Taste......Page 1454
Introduction......Page 1455
Introduction......Page 1456
Processing of Finfish......Page 1457
Summary......Page 1463
Disclaimer......Page 1464
Game Economics......Page 1465
Carcass Characteristics......Page 1466
Consumption of Game Meat......Page 1468
Nutritional Value of Game Meat......Page 1469
Summary......Page 1470
Introduction......Page 1471
Introduction......Page 1472
Growth and Carcass Composition......Page 1473
Carcass Classification......Page 1474
Meat Quality......Page 1475
The Halothane Gene......Page 1476
Other Genetic Aspects of Meat Quality......Page 1478
Introduction......Page 1479
Chickens......Page 1480
Turkeys......Page 1482
Geese......Page 1484
Summary......Page 1485
Game Economics......Page 1486
Introduction......Page 1487
Biological Types of Sheep......Page 1488
Composition......Page 1489
Quality......Page 1490
Summary......Page 1491
Procambarus clarkia (red swamp crawfish)......Page 1492
Krill (Euphausia superba)......Page 1493
Molluscs......Page 1494
Scallops......Page 1495
Cockles (Cardium edule)......Page 1496
Periwinkles or sea snails (Littorina littorea)......Page 1497
Summary......Page 1498
Aerobic Spoilage of Raw Muscle Tissue......Page 1499
Aerobic Spoilage of Raw Muscle Tissue......Page 1500
Anaerobic Spoilage......Page 1502
Bacterial Spoilage of Preserved Meats......Page 1504
Spoilage by Yeast and Moulds......Page 1505
Peroxidation of Lipids......Page 1506
History......Page 1507
Stunning......Page 1508
Ethics......Page 1509
Meat Quality......Page 1510
Poultry......Page 1511
Other Species......Page 1512
Reason for Use of Gas Stunning......Page 1513
Introduction......Page 1514
Research Techniques......Page 1515
Head Sites for Percussive Stunning......Page 1516
Abattoir Audits......Page 1517
Carcass Contamination with Central Nervous Tissue......Page 1518
Summary......Page 1519
History......Page 1520
Pithing and Immobilization......Page 1521
Tenderstretching......Page 1523
Tendercut......Page 1524
Electrical Stimulation......Page 1525
Blade Tenderization......Page 1526
Ultrasonic Waves......Page 1527
Hydrodynamic Pressure......Page 1528
Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 1529
Freeze–Thaw......Page 1530
Rigor Bonding......Page 1531
Rigor Bonding......Page 1532
Injection of Acids and Other Compounds......Page 1533
Role of Endogenous Proteases......Page 1534
Calpain System......Page 1535
Calpain enzymes......Page 1536
Conclusions......Page 1537
Measurement of Tenderness of Cooked versus Uncooked Meat......Page 1539
Mechanical Methods of Tenderness Measurement......Page 1540
Sensory Methods of Tenderness Measurement......Page 1542
Other Methods of Tenderness Measurement......Page 1543
Density......Page 1546
Density......Page 1547
Freezing Temperature......Page 1548
Enthalpy, Latent Heat and Specific Heat Capacity......Page 1549
Thermal Conductivity......Page 1550
Heat Transfer Coefficient......Page 1551
Mass Transfer Coefficient......Page 1552