Encyclopedia of Geology

Geological Basement......Page 1
Eastern Province Terranes......Page 2
Overlap Sequences......Page 5
Late Cretaceous-Palaeogene Passive Margin......Page 6
Further Reading......Page 7
Introduction......Page 8
Modern Plate Tectonic Context and Extent of Laurentia......Page 9
Precambrian Nucleus of North America: General Structure......Page 12
The Slave Craton......Page 16
Proterozoic Orogens: the Glue of the Laurentian Collage......Page 17
Post-1.8 Ga Growth and Modification of Laurentia......Page 19
Further Reading......Page 20
Introduction......Page 21
The Foundation......Page 22
The Sedimentary Veneer......Page 23
The Phanerozoic Geological Record......Page 25
The Sediments......Page 28
Structural Development......Page 30
Cratonic Structures......Page 31
Mineral Resources......Page 33
Introduction......Page 0
Introduction......Page 36
Physiography......Page 37
Crustal Thickness......Page 38
Autochthonous and Parautochthonous Rocks......Page 39
Rocks of the Orogenic Collage......Page 42
Northern Cordilleran Mountain Building......Page 43
External part......Page 44
Continental Margin Terranes......Page 45
Accretionary complex and back-arc basin terranes; ordered from continental interior to ocean......Page 46
Further Reading......Page 47
Precambrian Framework......Page 48
Palaeozoic Orogenies......Page 50
Truncation of the Cordilleran Miogeocline and Pre-Cenozoic Strike-Slip Faulting along the  South-western Margin of the Cordillera......Page 52
Accreted Terranes......Page 53
Jurassic Magmatic and Tectonic Events......Page 54
Cretaceous Palaeogeographic Belts and Transition to an Andean-Type Continental Margin......Page 55
Laramide Orogeny......Page 56
Post-Laramide, Early Cenozoic Magmatic and Tectonic History......Page 58
Further Reading......Page 60
Introduction......Page 61
Cambrian Continental Margin......Page 62
Syn-Orogenic Sequence......Page 63
Regional Subdivisions......Page 65
Regional Geophysics......Page 67
Tectonic Synthesis......Page 70
Further Reading......Page 71
Introduction......Page 72
Rifting of Rodinia......Page 73
Passive Margin Evolution......Page 76
Pine Mountain Terrane......Page 77
Mid-Palaeozoic Sedimentation and Neoacadian Docking of the Carolina Superterrane......Page 78
Late Mississippian to Permian Alleghanian Zippered Collision with Gondwana and the Amalgamation of Pangaea......Page 79
Further Reading......Page 80
Tectonostratigraphical Divisions......Page 81
Humber Zone......Page 83
Dunnage Zone......Page 84
Exploits Subzone......Page 85
Gander Zone......Page 87
Meguma Zone......Page 88
Overview and Summary of the Tectonic Evolution of the Northern Appalachians......Page 89
Further Reading......Page 91
Morphology of the Margin......Page 93
Passive Margin Structure......Page 95
Sedimentary History and Palaeoenvironments......Page 102
Energy, Mineral, and Water Resources......Page 105
Current and Future Societal Issues......Page 106
Conclusions......Page 107
Further Reading......Page 108
Platform and Foldbelt......Page 109
Collisional Zone......Page 110
Economic Minerals......Page 112
Solomon Islands......Page 113
Economic Geology......Page 114
Vanuatu......Page 115
Successor Basin Sediments......Page 116
Economic Minerals......Page 117
Islands of the Koro Sea......Page 118
Tonga......Page 120
Fiji......Page 121
Vanuatu......Page 122
Development of Ideas on the Origin of Life......Page 123
The Tree of Life......Page 124
The RNA World......Page 125
Pre-RNA Worlds......Page 126
Sources of Prebiotic Organic Molecules......Page 127
Where did Life Originate?......Page 128
Glossary......Page 129
Further Reading......Page 130
Geological Proxies of Palaeoclimate......Page 131
Marine Carbonates......Page 133
Palaeoclimate Models......Page 134
Modelled temperatures......Page 135
Precipitation......Page 136
Further Reading......Page 139
Palaeoautecology......Page 140
Palaeosynecology......Page 142
Investigating Fossil Populations......Page 143
Competition......Page 144
Predation......Page 145
Examples of Palaeosynecological Studies......Page 146
Fundamentals......Page 147
Palaeomagnetic Analysis......Page 149
Palaeomagnetic Stability Tests......Page 151
Palaeomagnetic Poles and Reconstruction of a Continent......Page 152
Apparent Polar Wander Paths......Page 153
Palaeolatitudes and Drift Rates - Links to Facies......Page 154
Palaeomagnetism and Palaeogeography: the Big Picture......Page 155
Further Reading......Page 156
Classification of Organisms......Page 157
Human Understanding of Fossils......Page 158
Further Reading......Page 159
Palaeopathologies in Fossil Invertebrates......Page 160
Palaeopathologies in Fossil Vertebrates......Page 161
Further Reading......Page 162
Chronostratigraphical Framework......Page 163
Cambrian Palaeogeography......Page 164
Cambrian Environments and Climates......Page 165
Cambrian Life......Page 171
The Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Biotic Transition......Page 172
See Also......Page 174
Further Reading......Page 175
Type Areas and Sections......Page 176
Arenigian......Page 177
Caradocian......Page 178
Life in the Ordovician......Page 179
The End-Ordovician Extinction and Glaciation......Page 180
Ordovician Geography and Tectonics......Page 181
Vulcanicity and Geochronology......Page 182
Further Reading......Page 184
The Llandovery Series......Page 185
The Wenlock Series......Page 188
Norway and Sweden......Page 189
Methods of Dating and Correlation......Page 190
Tectonic Activity......Page 191
Palaeogeography and Climate......Page 192
Further Reading......Page 193
The Plant Invasion......Page 194
The Animal Invasion......Page 195
Late Devonian Biodiversity Crises......Page 196
The End-Devonian Biodiversity Crisis......Page 197
The Late Devonian Biodiversity Crisis......Page 198
Further Reading......Page 200
Mississippian-Pennsylvanian Boundary......Page 201
Carboniferous Subdivisions......Page 202
Lithologies and Environments......Page 203
Palaeobiogeography......Page 204
The Carboniferous Atmosphere......Page 205
The Carboniferous Climate: Icehouse Conditions......Page 207
Plants......Page 209
Terrestrial Invertebrates......Page 210
Vertebrates......Page 211
Further Reading......Page 212
Tectonics......Page 214
Marine Fossils......Page 216
Extinction......Page 217
Further Reading......Page 218
Definition and Dating......Page 219
Terrestrial Extinctions......Page 220
Extraterrestrial Impact......Page 221
Global Warming......Page 222
Post-Extinction Recovery......Page 223
Conclusions......Page 224
Late Carboniferous Accretion of Pangaea......Page 225
Triassic Pangaea......Page 227
Further Reading......Page 228
Seal......Page 229
Membrane Seal......Page 230
Fault......Page 231
Porosity......Page 232
Permeability......Page 233
Reservoir; sandstone depositional systems......Page 234
Karst......Page 235
Trap......Page 236
Structural Trap......Page 237
Stratigraphical Trap......Page 240
Migration......Page 243
Primary Migration......Page 244
Secondary Migration......Page 245
Further Reading......Page 247
Saturated compounds......Page 248
Gas chromatography......Page 250
API gravity......Page 252
Wax content......Page 255
Distillation fractions......Page 256
Hydrocarbon Gases......Page 257
Nitrogen......Page 258
Further Reading......Page 260
Introduction......Page 261
Detection and Distribution of Gas Hydrates......Page 263
Gas Hydrates as an Energy Source......Page 264
Gas Hydrates as a Geohazard and Climate Mediator......Page 266
Further Reading......Page 267
Introduction and Definitions......Page 268
Source Rock Deposition......Page 269
Source Rock Characterization......Page 271
Type of kerogen-optical methods......Page 272
Type of kerogen-pyrolysis methods......Page 275
Maturation......Page 280
Generation and Expulsion......Page 283
Migration......Page 288
Accumulation and Survival......Page 289
System Efficiencies......Page 292
Further Reading......Page 293
Generation, Migration, Alteration and Volumetrics......Page 294
Geological Analysis......Page 295
Geophysical Analysis......Page 296
Prospect Appraisal Systems......Page 301
Deterministic Models......Page 302
Exploration Drilling......Page 304
Petroleum Agreements......Page 306
Further Reading......Page 307
Historical Development of Production Geology......Page 308
Controlling Reservoir Characteristics......Page 311
Small-Scale Heterogeneity......Page 313
Core Description and Analysis......Page 315
Permeability Distribution......Page 318
Fault and Fracture Analysis......Page 319
Correlation and Use of Analogues......Page 321
Volumetric Estimates......Page 322
Geostatistics......Page 323
Static Modelling......Page 324
Dynamic Modelling......Page 326
Conclusions......Page 327
Further Reading......Page 330
Definitions of Reserves......Page 331
Predictions of Ultimate Recoverable Reserves......Page 332
The Peak Oil and Depletion Debate......Page 334
The Economic Viewpoint......Page 337
Further Reading......Page 339
Tectonic Plates, Lithosphere, and Asthenosphere......Page 340
Plate Tectonics......Page 341
Divergent (Ridge) Boundaries......Page 342
Transform Boundaries......Page 343
Rotation Poles......Page 344
Measuring Plate Motions......Page 346
Plates as Parts of the Mantle Convection Cycle......Page 348
Further Reading......Page 349
The Origin of the Earth......Page 350
Precambrian Sediments and Climate......Page 351
Precambrian Terranes and Palaeogeography......Page 352
Further Reading......Page 354
Mesoproterozoic (1600-1000 Ma) Eukaryotes......Page 357
Early Neoproterozoic......Page 358
Late Neoproterozoic......Page 360
Further Reading......Page 363
Molecular and Biochemical Evidence......Page 365
Biogeochemistry......Page 366
Stromatolites......Page 367
Silicified Microbiotas......Page 368
Criteria for Biogenicity......Page 369
Further Reading......Page 370
Geological Events......Page 371
Palaeobiological Events......Page 372
Earth System Events......Page 376
Glossary......Page 380
Further Reading......Page 381
Fracture Surfaces......Page 382
Cone-In-Cone Structures......Page 383
Nodules and Concretions......Page 384
Generation of Pyroclastic Material......Page 386
Eruption Plumes......Page 388
Pyroclast Types and Deposits......Page 389
Pyroclastic Fall Deposits......Page 390
Pyroclastic Density Currents and Their Deposits......Page 391
Pyroclastic Density Current Transport and Deposition......Page 394
Further Reading......Page 397
Introduction......Page 398
Types of Rock Quarries......Page 399
Careers in the Quarrying Industry......Page 400
Seeking and Gaining Stone Industry Employment......Page 401
Quarry Restoration......Page 402
Further Reading......Page 404
Introduction......Page 405
Regional Metamorphic Zones and Facies......Page 406
Facies of High Pressure......Page 407
The Barrovian-Type Metamorphic Complex of Naxos......Page 408
Further Reading......Page 411
Radars, Lidars and Sonars......Page 412
Imaging Radar......Page 413
Roughness Mapping......Page 414
Ground Motion Measurement......Page 415
Earthquakes and Tectonics......Page 416
Further Reading......Page 417
Introduction......Page 418
Spatial Data, Models and, Structures......Page 419
Visualization......Page 420
Field Mapping......Page 421
Geohazards......Page 422
Vulcanology......Page 424
Quantifying uncertainty......Page 425
Data Sharing and the Internet......Page 427
Further Reading......Page 428
Passive Sensor Imaging Technology......Page 430
Across-Track Mechanical Scanner......Page 431
Digital Cameras......Page 433
Broadband Reflective Multispectral Imagery......Page 434
Thermal Infrared (TIR) Sensors......Page 435
Hyper-Spectral Sensors (Imaging Spectrometers)......Page 436
Further Reading......Page 437
The Basic Components: In Situ Stress, Fractures, and Intact Rock......Page 438
The Engineering Material: Rock Masses......Page 441
Rock Engineering Topics......Page 444
Engineering in Fractured Rock......Page 445
Engineering in Continuous Rock......Page 447
Numerical Analysis......Page 448
Further Reading......Page 449
Sedimentary Rocks......Page 450
Complications and Anomalies......Page 451
Sedimentary Rock Anomalies......Page 452
Further Reading......Page 453
East European Craton......Page 454
Siberian Craton......Page 459
Patom Highlands......Page 461
Northern Taimyr, Arctic Shelf and Timanides......Page 462
Altai-Mongol Domain......Page 463
Kazakhstan-Khingan Domain......Page 465
Verkhoyansk-Chukotka Orogenic Collage......Page 466
Nipponide Collage......Page 468
Modern Plate Tectonics......Page 469
Further Reading......Page 471
Geochemical and Geophysical Characteristics......Page 472
Global Distribution and Spatial Arrangement......Page 473
Tectonic Setting: Intraplate Seamounts......Page 474
Tectonic Setting: Island Arcs......Page 476
Shoaling stage......Page 477
Why Seamounts Have Flat Tops......Page 478
Critical Habitat......Page 479
Further Reading......Page 481
Facies......Page 482
Facies Analysis......Page 483
Architectural Elements and Bounding Surfaces......Page 485
Sequence Stratigraphy and Key Surfaces......Page 487
Further Reading......Page 488
Alluvial Fans, Alluvial Sediments and Settings......Page 489
Further Reading......Page 490
Identifying Ancient Anoxic Environments......Page 492
Oceanic Anoxic Events......Page 494
Productivity versus Preservation......Page 496
Introduction......Page 498
Attached Rimmed Carbonate Shelf......Page 502
Unattached Rimmed Carbonate Shelf......Page 504
Attached Carbonate Ramp in an Arid Tropical Environment......Page 506
Attached Carbonate Ramp in a Cold Temperate Environment......Page 508
Further Reading......Page 510
History......Page 511
Bottom Currents......Page 512
Sediment Drifts......Page 515
Seismic Characteristics......Page 518
Medium Scale (i.e., Unit)......Page 519
Facies Model......Page 520
Facies Continuum and Distinguishing Criteria......Page 523
Further Reading......Page 524
Controls on the Variability of Deltas......Page 525
River Mouth Processes and Plumes in Deltas......Page 526
The Abandonment of Deltas......Page 528
Syn-Sedimentary Deformation in Deltas......Page 529
Deeper Seated Deformational Features......Page 532
Economic Aspects......Page 534
Further Reading......Page 536
Dunes and Sand Seas......Page 537
Interdunes......Page 538
Alluvial Fans......Page 539
Bounding Surfaces in Aeolian Strata......Page 540
Types of Desert Aeolian System......Page 541
Dry Aeolian Systems......Page 542
Stabilizing Aeolian Systems......Page 543
Depositional Models for Desert Systems......Page 544
Further Reading......Page 546
Vertical Mixing......Page 547
Waves......Page 549
Mass Failure......Page 551
Silica......Page 553
Evaporites......Page 554
Tectonic Processes......Page 555
Further Reading......Page 558
Modern Reefs......Page 559
Reefs through Time......Page 562
Further Reading......Page 566
Wave Processes......Page 567
Classification and Geomorphology of Shoreline Systems......Page 570
Progradational Wave-Dominated Shoreline Systems......Page 571
Vertical Succession through a Wave-Dominated Shoreface Succession......Page 572
Low-Relief Transgressive Coastlines......Page 574
High-Relief Transgressive Coastlines......Page 575
Further Reading......Page 576
Oceanographic Studies......Page 577
Interpreting Ancient Tempestites......Page 578
Further Reading......Page 583
Erosional Sole Marks......Page 585
Sole Marks due to Fluid Turbulence......Page 586
Tool Marks......Page 587
Erosional Surface Forms......Page 588
See Also......Page 589
Further Reading......Page 590
Current Ripples and Ripple Lamination......Page 591
Dunes, Sand Waves, and Cross-Bedding......Page 593
Upper Flow Regime Bedforms and Lamination......Page 594
Wave Ripples and their Lamination......Page 595
Aeolian Bedforms and Internal Bedding......Page 596
Decelerating Flows and the Bouma Sequence......Page 597
Gravel Forms and Fabric......Page 598
Further Reading......Page 599
Deforming Forces......Page 600
Convolute Lamination......Page 601
Dish and Pillar Structures......Page 603
Slumps and Slides......Page 604
Sedimentary Growth Faults......Page 605
Desiccation and Other Cracks......Page 606
Periglacial Deformation......Page 607
Further Reading......Page 608
Sediment Movement by the Wind......Page 609
Wind Erosion Landforms......Page 612
Silt and Clay Size......Page 613
Sand Dunes......Page 615
Dune Processes and Dynamics......Page 617
Sand Seas......Page 619
Preservation of Aeolian Deposits in the Rock Record......Page 620
Effects of Climate and Sea-Level Change on Aeolian Systems......Page 623
Further Reading......Page 624
Causes of Catastrophic Floods......Page 625
Catastrophic Flood Characteristics......Page 630
Geomorphic and Sedimentary Impact......Page 634
See Also......Page 637
Introduction......Page 638
Sediment Sources......Page 639
Sediment Transport Processes in Deep Water......Page 640
Sediment Nomenclature......Page 642
Continental Slopes......Page 643
Sediment Distribution in Pelagic Realms......Page 645
Further Reading......Page 646
Introduction......Page 647
Material Transfer......Page 648
Form Units......Page 651
Architectural Ensembles......Page 653
Drainage Basins......Page 654
Developments in Time......Page 656
Further Reading......Page 659
Global Distribution of Glaciers......Page 660
Glacier Morphology......Page 661
Glacier Mass Balance......Page 662
Glacier Thermal Regime......Page 663
Glacier Structure......Page 664
Landforms of Glacial Erosion......Page 665
Bathymetric Forms Resulting from Glacial Erosion......Page 667
Processes of Glacial Deposition......Page 668
Glacigenic Sediments......Page 672
Subglacial landforms......Page 673
Bathymetric Forms Resulting from Glacial Deposition......Page 674
Further Reading......Page 675
Karst Processes......Page 676
Small-Scale Karst (Karren)......Page 677
Medium-Scale Karst (Karst Landforms)......Page 678
Large-Scale Karst (Karst Landscapes)......Page 679
Karst Drainage......Page 680
Caves (Endokarst)......Page 681
Palaeokarst and Interstratal Karst......Page 683
Further Reading......Page 684
Types of Landslide......Page 685
Reactivation of Ancient Landslides......Page 688
Further Reading......Page 689