Encyclopedia of Fish Physiology: From Genome to Environment

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
FISH PHYSIOLOGY:
FROM GENOME TO
ENVIRONMENT......Page 2
How to go to your page......Page 3
Copyright......Page 5
EDITORS’ BIOGRAPHIES......Page 8
SECTION EDITORS......Page 10
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 12
HOW TO USE THE ENCYCLOPEDIA......Page 20
CONTENTS......Page 22
PREFACE......Page 34
Volume 1: THE SENSES, SUPPORTING TISSUES, REPRODUCTION, AND BEHAVIOR......Page 4
Functional Morphology of the Nervous System: An Introduction......Page 36
Cranial and Spinal Nerves of Fishes: Evolution of the Craniate Pattern......Page 41
Functional Morphology of the Brains of Agnathans......Page 51
Functional Morphology of the Brains of Cartilaginous Fishes......Page 61
Functional Morphology of the Brains of Ray-Finned Fishes......Page 72
Functional Morphology of the Brains of Sarcopterygian Fishes: Lungfishes and Latimeria......Page 81
Motor Control Systems of Fish......Page 91
Physiology of the Mauthner Cell: Discovery and Properties......Page 101
Physiology of the Mauthner Cell: Function......Page 108
Autonomic Nervous System of Fishes......Page 115
Opioids and Opioid Receptors in Fishes......Page 124
Vision in Fishes: An Introduction......Page 133
Physiological Optics in Fishes......Page 137
Photoreceptors and Visual Pigments......Page 145
Adaptations of Photoreceptors and Visual Pigments......Page 151
Inner Retina and Ganglion Cells......Page 158
Optic Tectum......Page 166
Behavioral Assessment of the Visual Capabilities of Fish......Page 178
Color Vision and Color Communication in Reef Fish......Page 185
Extraretinal Photoreception......Page 194
Visual Adaptations to the Deep Sea......Page 201
Chemoreception (Smell and Taste): An Introduction......Page 218
Morphology of the Gustatory (Taste) System in Fishes......Page 222
Morphology of the Olfactory (Smell) System in Fishes......Page 229
Neurophysiology of Olfaction......Page 243
Neurophysiology of Gustation......Page 253
Chemosensory Behavior......Page 262
Fish Bioacoustics: An Introduction......Page 271
Vestibular System Anatomy and Physiology......Page 279
Auditory System Morphology......Page 287
The Ear and Hearing in Sharks, Skates, and Rays......Page 297
Biomechanics of the Inner Ear in Fishes......Page 305
Psychoacoustics: What Fish Hear......Page 311
Auditory/Lateral Line CNS: Anatomy......Page 318
Physiology of the Ear and Brain: How Fish Hear......Page 327
Sound Source Localization and Directional Hearing in Fishes......Page 333
Effects of Human-Generated Sound on Fish......Page 339
Acoustic Behavior......Page 346
Vocal Behavior of Fishes: Anatomy and Physiology......Page 356
Lateral Line Neuroethology......Page 364
Lateral Line Structure......Page 371
Detection and Generation of Electric Signals in Fishes: An Introduction......Page 382
Morphology of Electroreceptive Sensory Organs......Page 385
Physiology of Ampullary Electrosensory Systems......Page 394
Physiology of Tuberous Electrosensory Systems......Page 401
Active Electrolocation......Page 410
Electric Organs......Page 422
Generation of Electric Signals......Page 433
Development of Electroreceptors and Electric Organs......Page 444
Functional Anatomy of Bones, Muscle, and Skin: An Introduction......Page 451
Cartilaginous Fish Skeletal Anatomy......Page 454
Cartilaginous Fish Skeletal Tissues......Page 463
Bony Fish Skeleton......Page 469
Cartilaginous Fishes Cranial Muscles......Page 484
Bony Fish Cranial Muscles......Page 498
The Many Functions of Fish Integument......Page 506
Functional Morphology of the Integumentary System in Fishes......Page 511
Coloration and Chromatophores in Fishes......Page 524
Bioluminescence in Fishes......Page 532
Hagfish Slime......Page 539
Buoyancy, Locomotion, and Movement in Fishes: An Introduction......Page 551
Buoyancy in Fishes......Page 555
Swimbladder Function and Buoyancy Control in Fishes......Page 561
Experimental Hydrodynamics......Page 570
Undulatory Swimming......Page 582
Functional Properties of Skeletal Muscle: Work Loops......Page 590
Paired Fin Swimming......Page 599
Maneuverability......Page 610
Stability and Turbulence......Page 616
Fast Start......Page 622
Feeding Mechanics......Page 632
Biomimetics: Robotics Based on Fish Swimming......Page 638
The Diversity of Fish Reproduction: An Introduction......Page 648
Anatomy and Histology of Fish Testis......Page 651
Regulation of Spermatogenesis......Page 662
Vitellogenesis in Fishes......Page 670
Linking Fish Behavior and Physiology: An Introduction......Page 682
Dominance Behaviors......Page 684
Sexual Behavior in Fish......Page 691
Socially Controlled Sex Change in Fishes......Page 697
Parental Care in Fishes......Page 705
Nutritional Provision During Parental Care......Page 713
How Fishes Use Sound: Quiet to Loud and Simple to Complex Signalling......Page 719
Communication Behavior: Visual Signals......Page 727
Shocking Comments: Electrocommunication in Teleost Fish......Page 734
Fish Learning and Memory......Page 742
Nociception or Pain in Fish......Page 748
Spatial Orientation: How do Fish Find their Way Around?......Page 755
Magnetic Sense in Fishes......Page 761
Circadian Rhythms in Fish......Page 771
A Survival Guide for Fishes: How to Obtain Food While Avoiding Being Food......Page 779
Effects of Compensatory Growth on Fish Behavior......Page 787
Temperature Preference: Behavioral Responses to Temperature in Fishes......Page 793
Behavioral Responses to Hypoxia......Page 800
Sleep in Fish......Page 807
Manipulation of Fish Phenotype by Parasites......Page 812
Anthropogenic Influences on Fish Behavior......Page 818
Volume 2: GAS EXCHANGE, INTERNAL HOMEOSTATIS, AND FOOD UPTAKE......Page 828
Respiration: An Introduction......Page 860
Plasticity in Gill Morphology......Page 865
Gill Respiratory Morphometrics......Page 872
The Effect of Exercise on Respiration......Page 881
Efficiency of Gas Exchange Organs......Page 889
Respiratory Gas Exchange During Development: Models and Mechanisms......Page 898
Respiratory Gas Exchange During Development: Respiratory Transitions......Page 907
Techniques in Whole Animal Respiratory Physiology......Page 915
Generation of the Respiratory Rhythm in Fish......Page 923
The Ventilatory Response to CO2/H+......Page 934
Oxygen Sensing in Fish......Page 940
Red Blood Cell Function......Page 948
Hemoglobin......Page 956
O2 Uptake and Transport: The Optimal P50......Page 962
Carbonic Anhydrase in Gas Transport and Exchange......Page 968
Carbon Dioxide Transport and Excretion......Page 978
Gas Transport and Exchange: Interaction Between O2 and CO2 Exchange......Page 985
Evolution of the Bohr Effect......Page 990
Root Effect: Root Effect Definition, Functional Role in Oxygen Delivery to the Eye and Swimbladder......Page 998
Root Effect: Molecular Basis, Evolution of the Root Effect and Rete Systems......Page 1004
Hemoglobin Differentiation in Fishes......Page 1013
Cellular Respiration......Page 1020
Mitochondrial Respiration......Page 1028
Specializations in Mitochondrial Respiration of Fish......Page 1035
The Circulatory System: An Introduction......Page 1042
Circulatory System Design: Roles and Principles......Page 1046
Cellular Composition of the Blood......Page 1053
Erythropoiesis in Fishes......Page 1061
Cardiac Anatomy in Fishes......Page 1067
Cellular Ultrastructure of Cardiac Cells in Fishes......Page 1075
The Outflow Tract from the Heart......Page 1084
Physiology of Cardiac Pumping......Page 1099
Action Potential of the Fish Heart......Page 1107
Cardiac Excitation-Contraction Coupling: Routes of Cellular Calcium Flux......Page 1114
Cardiac Excitation-Contraction Coupling: Calcium and the Contractile Element......Page 1123
Cardiac Cellular Length-Tension Relationship......Page 1129
Intracardiac Neurons and Neurotransmitters in Fish......Page 1136
Accessory Hearts in Fishes......Page 1142
The Coronary Circulation......Page 1146
Anatomical Pathways and Patterns......Page 1154
Branchial Anatomy......Page 1164
Physiology of Resistance Vessels......Page 1173
Physiology of Capacitance Vessels......Page 1180
The Retia......Page 1188
The Gastrointestinal Circulation......Page 1201
Capillaries, Capillarity, and Angiogenesis......Page 1211
Circulatory Fluid Balance and Transcapillary Exchange......Page 1223
Secondary Circulation and Lymphatic Anatomy......Page 1230
Integrated Control of the Circulatory System......Page 1238
Central Control of Cardiorespiratory Interactions in Fish......Page 1247
Hormone Metabolism in the Circulation......Page 1259
Integrated Responses of the Circulatory System to Temperature......Page 1266
Integrated Responses of the Circulatory System to Digestion......Page 1275
Integrated Cardiovascular Responses of Fish to Swimming......Page 1284
Integrated Responses of the Circulatory System to Hypoxia......Page 1290
The Gastrointestinal Tract: An Introduction......Page 1298
Gut Anatomy......Page 1337
Pancreas......Page 1345
Development of Fish Gut......Page 1353
Gut Motility......Page 1361
Gut Secretion and Digestion......Page 1370
Intestinal Absorption......Page 1380
Barrier Function of the Gut......Page 1391
Nervous System of the Gut......Page 1401
Endocrine Systems of the Gut......Page 1410
Osmoregulation in Fishes: An Introduction......Page 1417
Mechanisms of Gill Salt Secretion in Marine Teleosts......Page 1423
Mechanisms of Ion Transport in Freshwater Fishes......Page 1428
Water Balance and Aquaporin......Page 1435
Osmosensing......Page 1442
Morphology of Branchial Ionocytes......Page 1450
The Osmorespiratory Compromise......Page 1458
Histology of the Kidney......Page 1464
The Kidney......Page 1480
Gut Ion, Osmotic and Acid-Base Regulation......Page 1488
Dogfish Rectal Gland......Page 1498
Excretion of Ammonia......Page 1506
Ureotelism......Page 1513
Development of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Interrenal Axis......Page 1519
Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis......Page 1526
The Hormonal Control of Osmoregulation in Teleost Fish......Page 1535
Corticosteroids......Page 1543
Endocrinology of Fish Growth......Page 1552
Endocrine Control of Sex Differentiation in Fish......Page 1559
Endocrine Regulation of Fish Reproduction......Page 1569
Control of Appetite in Fish......Page 1578
Hormone Response to Stress......Page 1584
Catecholamines......Page 1593
Stress Effect on Growth and Metabolism......Page 1603
Impact of Stress in Health and Reproduction......Page 1610
Glossary......Page 1622
Goldfish and Related Carps......Page 1623
Female Postovulatory Prostaglandin Pheromone......Page 1625
Mechanisms of Pheromone Action......Page 1626
A Goldfish Chemical Network?......Page 1629
Hormonal Pheromones and Species Specificity......Page 1630
Further Reading
......Page 1631
Volume 3: ENERGETICS, INTERACTIONS WITH THE ENVIRONMENT, LIFESTYLES, AND APPLICATIONS......Page 1634
Energy Use by Fish......Page 1666
See also......Page 1668
Metabolic Rates of Fish......Page 1669
Further Reading
......Page 1675
Introduction......Page 1676
Scaling in Embryonic Fish......Page 1677
Ontogenetic Changes in Standard Metabolic Rate after Hatching......Page 1679
Interspecific Scaling......Page 1682
Further Reading
......Page 1685
Overview of Competition Theory and Relevance......Page 1686
The Ecomorphological Paradigm......Page 1687
Foraging and Prey Capture Behavior......Page 1688
Performance Consequences......Page 1689
Further Reading
......Page 1690
Introduction......Page 1691
The Motivation to Feed - When to Forage?......Page 1692
Searching for Food - How to Forage?......Page 1694
Prey Selection - What to Forage?......Page 1696
See also......Page 1697
Further Reading
......Page 1698
Concepts in Digestive Efficiency......Page 1699
Dietary Effects on Digestive Efficiency......Page 1703
Fish Digestive Strategies......Page 1705
Further Reading
......Page 1709
Introduction......Page 1711
Further Reading
......Page 1719
Nutrient Functions and Their Requirements......Page 1720
AAs/Protein......Page 1721
Fatty Acids......Page 1724
Further Reading
......Page 1725
Introduction......Page 1726
Relevant Website......Page 1731
Abiotic Factors......Page 1732
Biotic Factors......Page 1735
Further Reading
......Page 1737
Introduction......Page 1739
Types of Fish Muscle and Swimming Activity......Page 1740
Environmental Influences and the Fry Paradigm......Page 1744
Estimating the Costs of Swimming in Wild Fish......Page 1745
See also......Page 1746
Further Reading
......Page 1747
Introduction......Page 1748
Aerobic Metabolic Pathways: Sustaining Functional Scope......Page 1749
Anaerobic Metabolic Pathways: Extending Limits to Function and Time......Page 1751
Further Reading
......Page 1754
Background......Page 1755
Swimming Performance Data - Where Does It Come from?......Page 1758
Limitations of Available Data......Page 1762
Further Reading
......Page 1766
Glossary......Page 1767
Defining Bioenergetics: Energy Flow and Partitioning......Page 1769
Units of Measurement......Page 1771
Energy Budgets: Growth Trials and the Biological Evaluation of Compound Feeds......Page 1772
Monitoring Feed Intake......Page 1773
Assessment of Nutrient Bioavailability......Page 1774
Growth and Nutrient Retention Efficiency......Page 1775
Past and Future......Page 1776
Further Reading
......Page 1777
Fish Bioenergetics Modeling inEcosystems: An Overview......Page 1778
Wisconsin Bioenergetics Models for Fish......Page 1779
An Example of Fish BioenergeticsModeling Guiding Fisheries Management......Page 1780
Use of Bioenergetics Modeling to BetterUnderstand Fish Growth andConsumption......Page 1781
Limitations to Fish Bioenergetics ModelApplications......Page 1782
Further Reading......Page 1783
Introduction......Page 1784
Optimal Values for Biochemical Systems: The Conservative Side of Adaptation......Page 1785
Conservation of an Appropriate Internal Milieu......Page 1786
Conservation of Membrane Function: Homeoviscous and Homeophasic Adaptation......Page 1788
Conservation of Gene Regulatory Ability......Page 1789
Further Reading
......Page 1790
Glossary......Page 1791
Introduction......Page 1792
Temperature, Thermal Energy, and Heat......Page 1793
Effects of Temperature on Rate Processes......Page 1794
Arrhenius Breakpoint Temperature......Page 1795
Effects of Temperature on Weak Bonds......Page 1796
Further Reading
......Page 1797
Temperature-Dependent Physiology: The Basis of Thermal Tolerance......Page 1798
Laboratory Measures of Thermal Tolerance......Page 1799
Influences on Thermal Tolerance......Page 1802
Ecophysiological Theory of Thermal Tolerance......Page 1804
Further Reading
......Page 1805
Introduction......Page 1806
Effects of Temperature on Enzyme Function......Page 1807
Structural Modifications in Proteins Important for Temperature Adaptation......Page 1808
Location of Amino Acid Substitutions Is Important in Enzymic Temperature Adaptation......Page 1810
Further Reading
......Page 1811
Introduction......Page 1812
Fish Mitochondria and Thermal Change......Page 1814
Further Reading
......Page 1819
Glossary......Page 1820
Ion Channels Are Necessary for Excitability......Page 1821
How Does Temperature Affect Excitability?......Page 1822
Evolutionary Thermal Adaptation of Excitability......Page 1825
Further Reading
......Page 1826
Introduction......Page 1828
Structure of Cellular Membranes......Page 1829
Environmental Effects on Fluidity......Page 1832
Further Reading
......Page 1834
Heat Shock Proteins......Page 1835
HSPs and Fish......Page 1836
Plasticity of the Heat Shock Response......Page 1837
Triggers of the Heat Shock Response......Page 1838
Molecular Regulation of the Heat Shock Response......Page 1839
Further Reading
......Page 1840
Introduction......Page 1841
Ecosystem Level Phenomena: Populations and Communities......Page 1842
Physiological Background of Climate-Change Impacts on Ecosystems......Page 1844
Performance Patterns and Energy Budget......Page 1845
Physiology-Based Projections of Impacts......Page 1847
Further Reading
......Page 1848
Importance of Oxygen and Hypoxia......Page 1849
Rise of Anthropogenic Influence on Oxygen Budgets......Page 1850
Oxygen Budgets and Global Climate Change......Page 1852
Further Reading
......Page 1853
What Is the Hypoxic Hyperventilatory Response?......Page 1854
What Is the Benefit of the Hypoxic Ventilatory Response?......Page 1856
What Are the Pathways Mediating the Hypoxic Ventilatory Response?......Page 1857
Ontogeny and Plasticity of the Hypoxic Ventilatory Response......Page 1858
Further Reading
......Page 1859
General Overview of the ATP-Generating Pathways in Fish......Page 1860
The Fate of Pyruvate......Page 1863
Why Use Anaerobic Metabolism?......Page 1864
Anaerobic Metabolism and Exhaustive Exercise......Page 1865
Further Reading
......Page 1866
Defining Metabolic Rate and Metabolic Scope......Page 1867
Measuring Metabolic Rate......Page 1868
Hypoxia Exposure Imposes a Metabolic Stress in Animals......Page 1869
Changes in Behavior Contribute to Metabolic Rate Suppression......Page 1870
Changes in Biochemistry Contribute to Metabolic Rate Suppression......Page 1871
See also......Page 1872
Further Reading
......Page 1873
The Fascination and a Few Misconceptions......Page 1874
Anaerobic Abilities......Page 1875
The Unique Physiology and Anatomy of Hagfishes......Page 1876
Further Reading
......Page 1881
Life History of Lampreys......Page 1882
Locomotion and the Skeletal-Muscle System......Page 1883
Metamorphosis......Page 1885
Feeding......Page 1886
The Great Lakes Invasion by Sea Lampreys......Page 1888
Further Reading......Page 1889
Relevant Websites......Page 1890
Gas Exchange and Cardiovascular System......Page 1891
Osmoregulation......Page 1895
Nitrogenous Waste Production and Excretion......Page 1900
Further Reading
......Page 1901
Introduction......Page 1903
Reproduction......Page 1904
Endogenous and Environmental Regulation of Reproduction......Page 1905
Respiratory Metabolism......Page 1906
Osmoregulation......Page 1907
See also......Page 1908
Further Reading
......Page 1909
Glossary......Page 1910
Sensory Biology......Page 1911
Buoyancy Regulation......Page 1912
Respiration......Page 1913
Osmo- and Ionoregulation/Osmoconformation......Page 1914
Intermediary Metabolism......Page 1915
Immune System and Disease Resistance......Page 1917
Endothermy in Elasmobranchs......Page 1919
Further Reading
......Page 1920
Introduction......Page 1922
Distribution and Natural History......Page 1923
Lifecycle and Reproduction......Page 1924
Zebrafish as a Model Organism for Scientific Research......Page 1925
Further Reading
......Page 1926
Occurrence and Habitat......Page 1927
Ethanol Production......Page 1928
Neural Depression......Page 1929
Mechanisms of Metabolic Depression......Page 1930
Conclusions......Page 1932
Further Reading
......Page 1933
Habitats......Page 1934
Physiological Studies of Desert Pupfish......Page 1938
Relevant Websites......Page 1945
Astyanax Cavefish......Page 1946
Troglomorphism......Page 1947
Eye Degeneration......Page 1948
Feeding Apparatus Amplification......Page 1950
Evolution of Troglomorphism......Page 1951
Further Reading
......Page 1952
Glossary......Page 1953
The Diversity of Fish Air Breathing......Page 1954
The Types of Air-Breathing Fishes......Page 1956
The Evolution of Air Breathing......Page 1958
Air Breathing and Natural History......Page 1960
Further Reading
......Page 1962
Types......Page 1964
The Lung and Respiratory Gas Bladder......Page 1966
Head Region......Page 1969
Digestive Tube......Page 1972
Skin......Page 1974
ABO Ventilation......Page 1975
See also......Page 1976
Further Reading
......Page 1977
Introduction......Page 1978
Defining the Problem......Page 1980
Patterns of ABO Circulation: Lungs and Respiratory Gas Bladders......Page 1983
Circulation Patterns for Other ABOs......Page 1986
Coronary Circulation and Air Breathing......Page 1987
Further Reading
......Page 1988
Glossary......Page 1990
Introduction......Page 1992
General Adaptations for Life in the Pelagic Realm......Page 1993
Do Pelagic Fish Have a Depth Preference?......Page 1997
What May Limit the Vertical Movements of Pelagic Fishes?......Page 1998
Physiological and Morphological Adaptations That Allow Some Pelagic Fishes to Undergo Rapid and Repeated Vertical Movements in the Water Column......Page 2001
See also......Page 2004
Further Reading
......Page 2005
Glossary......Page 2006
Continuous Swimming......Page 2007
High Metabolic Rates and Aerobic Scopes......Page 2008
Specializations Associated with High Aerobic Capacity......Page 2012
Physiological Consequences of Regional Endothermy......Page 2013
Physiological Consequences of Diving in Tunas......Page 2015
Further Reading
......Page 2016
Introduction......Page 2017
Systemic Endothermy......Page 2018
Heater Organ Tissue......Page 2019
How Fish Have Built a Furnace Out of Muscle......Page 2020
Why Be Warm?......Page 2021
Further Reading
......Page 2023
Glossary......Page 2024
Orientation and Navigation......Page 2025
Energetics of Migration......Page 2027
Environmental Factors That Influence Migration......Page 2028
Anthropogenic Impacts on Migration......Page 2029
Further Reading
......Page 2030
Introduction......Page 2031
Acoustic Tags......Page 2033
Early Satellite Transmitters......Page 2034
Relevant Websites......Page 2039
Larval Migration: The Early Years......Page 2040
Migration from the Coastal Shelf: Life as a Glass Eel......Page 2042
The Downstream Migration: Back to the Sea......Page 2044
The Spawning Migration: Into the Big Blue......Page 2046
Relevant Websites......Page 2047
Introduction......Page 2048
Smolting and Migration to Sea......Page 2050
Migration to Ocean Feeding Grounds......Page 2051
Directed Migration to the Coast and Natal River......Page 2052
Anthropogenic Threats Involving Salmon Migrations......Page 2053
See also......Page 2054
Further Reading
......Page 2055
What Is the Deep Sea?......Page 2056
Feeding among the Deep-Sea Fishes......Page 2058
Effects of Pressure......Page 2059
Further Reading
......Page 2061
Introduction......Page 2062
Types of Intertidal Habitats......Page 2063
Adaptations to Changing Oxygenation......Page 2065
Further Reading
......Page 2067
Glossary......Page 2068
Sources......Page 2069
Culture Vessels......Page 2070
Growth Temperature......Page 2071
See also......Page 2072
Further Reading
......Page 2073
Pigment Cells in Fish......Page 2074
Genetic Control of Pigment Cell Development......Page 2076
Pigment Synthesis Genes......Page 2078
Pigment Cell Tumors......Page 2079
Further Reading
......Page 2081
Relevant Websites......Page 2082
Glossary......Page 2083
Ancestral Teleost-Specific Genome Duplication and Biodiversity......Page 2084
Diversity of Transposable Elements......Page 2086
Rapid Evolutionary Turnover of Sex Chromosomes......Page 2087
Further Reading
......Page 2088
Introduction......Page 2089
Reverse Genetics......Page 2090
Chemical Biology......Page 2091
In Vivo Imaging......Page 2092
Blood......Page 2093
Heart......Page 2094
Neuroscience......Page 2095
Muscle......Page 2096
Skin......Page 2097
Behavior......Page 2098
Further Reading
......Page 2099
Glossary......Page 2101
Fish Transgenesis......Page 2102
Further Reading
......Page 2111
Introduction......Page 2112
Reproductive Physiology......Page 2113
Hematology, Gas Transport, and Cardiovascular Physiology......Page 2114
Respiration and Metabolism......Page 2115
Immunology and Disease Resistance......Page 2116
Further Reading
......Page 2117
Brief History of Genetic Engineering in Fish......Page 2119
Growth Effects of GH Transgenes in Fish......Page 2120
Expression of Transgenes and Endocrine Effects......Page 2121
Phenotypic Effects - Morphology......Page 2122
Oxygen Uptake, Exercise, and Energy Use......Page 2123
Behavior......Page 2124
Application in Aquaculture, and Environmental Risk Assessments......Page 2125
Further Reading
......Page 2127
Introduction......Page 2128
Genetic Sex Determination......Page 2129
Molecular Control of Sex Differentiation......Page 2132
Further Reading
......Page 2134
Introduction......Page 2135
Extracellular Products......Page 2136
Excretion Systems......Page 2138
Infection......Page 2142
Fish Viruses......Page 2143
Methods of Control......Page 2146
Further Reading
......Page 2147
What Is a Germ Cell?......Page 2149
When Is a PGC Specified?......Page 2150
PGC Migration......Page 2151
What Is a Trans Sex Phenomenon?......Page 2154
Plasma Steroids Play a Critical Role in Sex Change......Page 2156
Further Reading
......Page 2157
Why Is Global Gene Expression Measured?......Page 2158
Sources of Variation in Gene Expression Data......Page 2159
Physiological Insights Arising from Global Gene Expression Data......Page 2161
Further Reading
......Page 2163
How Do We Classify Metals?......Page 2164
Environmental Fate and Bioavailability of Metals......Page 2165
Biological Fate and Toxicokinetics......Page 2166
Biological Effects and Toxicodynamics......Page 2167
Further Reading
......Page 2170
Relevant Websites......Page 2171
Introduction......Page 2172
Biological Fate......Page 2173
Specific Organic Contaminants......Page 2176
Chemicals of Emerging Concern......Page 2179
Further Reading
......Page 2180
Odorants, Contaminants, and Their Relevance to Physiological and Behavioral Response......Page 2181
Further Reading
......Page 2185
Relevant Websites......Page 2186
Introduction......Page 2187
Temperature......Page 2188
Carbon Dioxide and Acid-Base Balance......Page 2190
Osmoregulation, Salinity Tolerance, and Smoltification in Cultured Fishes......Page 2191
Further Reading
......Page 2192
INDEX......Page 2194