Encyclopedia of condensed matter physics

Cover Page......Page 1
Title: ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS......Page 3
ISBN 0122276108......Page 4
EDITORS AND EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD......Page 5
INTRODUCTION......Page 7
2. Subject Classificatio......Page 9
Contributors......Page 10
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 11
C......Page 25
E......Page 26
H......Page 27
L......Page 28
M (cont.)......Page 29
P......Page 30
S......Page 31
S (cont.)......Page 32
X......Page 33
BIOPHYSICS......Page 34
ELECTRODYNAMICS......Page 35
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE......Page 36
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES......Page 37
MATHEMATICS......Page 38
OPTICAL PROPERTIES......Page 39
RADIATION SOURCES......Page 40
SPECTROSCOPY......Page 41
THERMODYNAMICS......Page 42
TRANSPORT PROPERTIES......Page 43
Acoustics: Physical Principles and \rApplications to CondensedMatter Physics......Page 44
Allotropy and \rPolymorphism......Page 51
Alloys: Aluminum......Page 61
Alloys: Copper......Page 67
Alloys: Iron......Page 89
Alloys: Magnesium......Page 97
Alloys: Overview......Page 100
Alloys: Titanium......Page 108
Ballistic Transport......Page 120
Bioelectronics......Page 128
Biological Structures......Page 142
Biomedical Materials......Page 151
Biomembranes......Page 159
Biomolecules, Scanning Probe Microscopy of......Page 165
Bose–Einstein Condensation......Page 174
Carbon Materials, Electronic States of......Page 186
Catalysts: Combinatorial Catalysis......Page 194
Catalysts: Materials......Page 201
Ceramics, History of......Page 216
Composites: Carbon Matrix......Page 221
Composites: Overview......Page 235
Composites: Polymer–Polymer......Page 251
Computer Simulation Techniques in Condensed Matter Physics......Page 254
Conductivity, Electrical......Page 262
Conductivity, Thermal......Page 268
Confocal Optical Microscopy......Page 272
Copolymers......Page 278
Core Photoemission......Page 283
Crystal Field Splitting......Page 295
Crystal Growth, Bulk: Methods......Page 305
Crystal Growth, Bulk: Theory and Models......Page 317
Crystal Optics......Page 326
Crystal Structure......Page 332
Crystal Structure Determination......Page 337
Crystal Structure Determination, History of......Page 347
Crystal Symmetry......Page 355
Crystal Tensors: Applications......Page 366
Crystal Tensors: Introduction......Page 372
Crystalline Organic Metals......Page 379
Cyclotron Resonance: Metals......Page 386
Cyclotron Resonance: Semiconductors......Page 399
Deep-Level Spectroscopy and Auger Spectra......Page 412
Defect Centers in Insulating Solids, Optical Properties of......Page 422
Deformation Processing......Page 430
Density-Functional Theory......Page 438
Deterministic Aperiodic Solids, Electronic Properties of......Page 445
Devices for Telecommunications......Page 452
Diamagnetism......Page 457
Diamond Anvil Cells......Page 461
Dielectric Function......Page 469
Diffusionless Transformations......Page 472
Dislocations......Page 480
Disorder and Localization Theory......Page 487
Disordered Magnetic Systems......Page 495
Disordered Solids and Glasses, Electronic Structure of......Page 500
DNA and RNA, Biophysical Aspects......Page 506
Effective Masses......Page 516
Electric and Magnetic Fields in Cells and Tissues......Page 521
Electrodynamics: Continuous Media......Page 529
Electrodynamics: Quantum Electrodynamics......Page 540
Electromagnetic Biological Effects......Page 545
Electromagnetically Induced Transparency......Page 551
Electron and Positron Sources......Page 557
Electron Gas (Theory)......Page 567
Electron Spin Resonance......Page 573
Electronic Structure (Theory): Atoms......Page 582
Electronic Structure (Theory): Molecules......Page 590
Electronic Structure Calculations: Plane-Wave Methods......Page 600
Electronic Structure Calculations: Scattering Methods......Page 608
Electron–Phonon Interactions and the Response of Polarons......Page 614
Electrons and Holes......Page 625
Electrons in Periodic Potentials with Magnetic Fields......Page 632
Electrophysiology......Page 641
Elemental Semiconductors, Electronic States of......Page 648
Elementary Excitations in Biological Systems......Page 656
Environmental Science, Physical Principles and Applications......Page 661
Epitaxy......Page 672
Exciton Complexes......Page 681
Excitons in Crystals......Page 686
Excitons: Theory......Page 694
Fermi Surface Measurements......Page 700
Ferroelectricity......Page 707
Ferromagnetism......Page 716
Film Growth and Epitaxy: Methods......Page 725
Fluorescent Biomolecules......Page 737
Fluorescent Proteins......Page 750
Folding and Sequence Analysis......Page 759
Genetic Algorithms for Biological Systems......Page 766
Geometrical Optics......Page 772
Geometrical Phase and Polarization in Solids......Page 782
Glasses......Page 788
Group Theory......Page 796
Group Theory in Materials Science, Applications......Page 805
Harmonic Generation Frequency Conversion......Page 818
Hartree and Hartree–Fock Methods in Electronic Structure......Page 826
Highly Porous Metals and Ceramics......Page 833
Holography......Page 847
Imaging and Optical Processing......Page 858
Impedance Spectroscopy and Mobility Spectra......Page 865
Incommensurate Phases......Page 879
Insulators, Electronic States of......Page 889
Insulators, Impurity and Defect States in......Page 895
Insulators, Optical Properties of......Page 903
Integrated Circuits......Page 909
Interaction of Light and Matter......Page 918
Intermetallic Compounds, Electronic States of......Page 924
Ion Beam Analysis......Page 938
Ion Transport in Biological Membranes......Page 950
Ionic and Mixed Conductivity in Condensed Phases......Page 958
Ionic Bonding and Crystals......Page 970
Ionizing Radiation Effects in Biological Materials......Page 977
Irreversible Thermodynamics and Basic Transport Theory in Solids......Page 983
Isotopic Effects in Solids......Page 992
Jahn–Teller Effect......Page 1002
Kondo Effect (Theory)......Page 1010
Laser Radiation Sources......Page 1016
Lattice Dynamics: Anharmonic Effects......Page 1026
Lattice Dynamics: Aperiodic Crystals......Page 1031
Lattice Dynamics: Structural Instability and Soft Modes......Page 1042
Lattice Dynamics: Vibrational Modes......Page 1047
Light Emitting Diodes......Page 1051
Liquid Crystals......Page 1060
Liquids, Electronic Structure of......Page 1069
Liquids, Theory of: Fermi Liquids......Page 1075
Lithography Masks and Pattern Transfer......Page 1085
Local Field Effects......Page 1094
Localized and Itinerant Magnetism......Page 1101
Low-Energy Electron Microscopy......Page 1110
Low-Temperature Properties of Materials......Page 1121
Luminescence......Page 1127
Magnetic Domains......Page 1140
Magnetic Interactions......Page 1146
Magnetic Materials and Applications......Page 1153
Magnetic Order......Page 1160
Magnetic Point Groups and Space Groups......Page 1168
Magnetism, History of......Page 1176
Magnetocaloric Effect......Page 1185
Magnetoelasticity......Page 1194
Magnetoresistance Techniques Applied to Fermi Surfaces......Page 1202
Manganites......Page 1210
Mass Transport......Page 1214
Mechanical Properties: Anelasticity......Page 1220
Mechanical Properties: Creep......Page 1229
Mechanical Properties: Elastic Behavior......Page 1235
Mechanical Properties: Fatigue......Page 1240
Mechanical Properties: Plastic Behavior......Page 1247
Mechanical Properties: Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals......Page 1255
Mechanical Properties: Tensile Properties......Page 1261
Membrane and Protein Aggregates......Page 1267
Memory Devices, Nonvolatile......Page 1273
Memory Devices, Volatile......Page 1286
Meso- and Nanostructures......Page 1296
Metallic Bonding and Crystals......Page 1302
Metalloproteins, Electron Transfer in......Page 1310
Metalloproteins, Structural Determination of......Page 1318
Metals and Alloys, Electronic States of (Including Fermi SurfaceCalculations)......Page 1328
Metals and Alloys, Impurity and Defect States in......Page 1333
Metals and Metallic Alloys, Optical Properties of......Page 1341
Micro- and Macrostructures......Page 1352
Microelectromechanical Systems......Page 1364
Micromechanical Devices and Systems......Page 1373
Modulators, Optical......Page 1379
Molecular Clusters......Page 1392
Molecular Crystallography......Page 1402
Molecular Dynamics Calculations......Page 1408
Molecular Dynamics, Car–Parrinello......Page 1415
Molecular Monolayers and Thin Films......Page 1421
Meossbauer Spectroscopy\r......Page 1427
Multicircle Diffractometry Methods......Page 1439
Muon Spin Rotation......Page 1448
Nanostructures, Electronic Structure of......Page 1458
Nanostructures, Optical Properties of......Page 1465
Neuroscience......Page 1471
Neutron Sources......Page 1476
Neutrons and Neutron Scattering, History of......Page 1483
NMR Methods for the Determination of Local Structure......Page 1490
Nonlinear Dynamics and Nonlinear Dynamical Systems......Page 1501
Nonlinear Optics......Page 1512
Nuclear Fission and Fusion......Page 1520
Nuclear Models and Methods......Page 1525
Numerical Approximation and Analysis......Page 1539
Onsager Relations......Page 1542
Optical Absorption and Reflectance......Page 1549
Optical Bistability......Page 1554
Optical Fibers......Page 1559
Optical Instruments......Page 1566
Optical Microscopy......Page 1582
Optical Properties of Materials......Page 1590
Optical Properties of Surface Layers Enhanced Raman Scattering......Page 1598
Optical Sum Rules and Kramers–Kronig Relations......Page 1607
Organic Semiconductors......Page 1613
Orientation Texture......Page 1628
Paramagnetism......Page 1642
Periodicity and Lattices......Page 1645
Phase Transformation......Page 1654
Phase Transformations, Mathematical Aspects of......Page 1665
Phases and Phase Equilibrium......Page 1670
Photoelectron Spectromicroscopy......Page 1679
Photon Statistics and Coherence Theory......Page 1687
Photonic Bandgap Materials, Electronic States of......Page 1693
Photosynthesis, Physics of......Page 1702
Piezoelectricity......Page 1707
Plasmons......Page 1717
Point Defects......Page 1725
Point Groups......Page 1730
Polaritons......Page 1741
Polarizabilities......Page 1748
Polarons......Page 1754
Polymer Structures......Page 1762
Polymers and Organic Compounds, Optical Properties of......Page 1769
Polymers and Organic Materials, Electronic States of......Page 1782
Polymers, History of......Page 1793
Porous Silicon......Page 1798
Powder Processing: Models and Simulations......Page 1808
Protein Folding and Aggregation......Page 1821
Protein Folding, Engineering of......Page 1825
Protein Folding, Evolution and......Page 1833
Pseudopotential Method......Page 1838
Pyroelectricity......Page 1848
Quantum Cascade Lasers......Page 1856
Quantum Computation and Chaos......Page 1864
Quantum Devices of Reduced Dimensionality......Page 1872
Quantum Hall Effect......Page 1877
Quantum Mechanics: Atoms......Page 1884
Quantum Mechanics: Critical Phenomena......Page 1894
Quantum Mechanics: Elementary Particles......Page 1899
Quantum Mechanics: Foundations......Page 1906
Quantum Mechanics: Methods......Page 1911
Quantum Mechanics: Molecules......Page 1922
Quantum Mechanics: Nuclei......Page 1931
Quasicrystals......Page 1941
Quasicrystals, Electronic Structure of......Page 1950
Radioactive Tracers......Page 1956
Radioactivity......Page 1961
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth......Page 1971
Recursive Methods for Electronic States......Page 1979
Red Blood Cells, Physical Properties of......Page 1984
Relativity......Page 1989
Rhodopsin and the First Step in Vision......Page 2000
Ruthenates......Page 2005
Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy......Page 2018
Scanning Probe Microscopy......Page 2027
Scattering Techniques, Compton......Page 2037
Scattering, Elastic (General)......Page 2048
Scattering, Inelastic: Brillouin......Page 2054
Scattering, Inelastic: Electron......Page 2060
Scattering, Inelastic: Raman......Page 2067
Scattering, Inelastic: X-Ray (Methods and Applications)......Page 2075
Scattering, Nuclear Resonant......Page 2082
Scattering, Rayleigh......Page 2089
Scattering, Resonant......Page 2097
Semiconductor and Metallic Clusters, Electronic Properties of......Page 2105
Semiconductor Compounds and Alloys, Electronic States of......Page 2111
Semiconductor Devices......Page 2119
Semiconductor Heterojunctions, Electronic Properties of......Page 2128
Semiconductor Lasers......Page 2136
Semiconductor Nanostructures......Page 2145
Semiconductor Optics......Page 2152
Semiconductors, Electronic Transitions in......Page 2158
Semiconductors, General Properties......Page 2166
Semiconductors, History of......Page 2176
Semiconductors, Impurity and Defect States in......Page 2185
Semi-Empirical and Empirical Calculations......Page 2196
Sensors......Page 2207
Shubnikov–de Haas and de Haas–van Alphen Techniques......Page 2215
Silicon, History of......Page 2223
Single-Molecule Methods in Biophysics......Page 2233
Small Particles and Clusters, Optical Properties of......Page 2243
Solid-State NMR Structural Studies of Proteins......Page 2249
Solidification: Models and Simulations......Page 2256
Space Groups......Page 2264
Specific Heat......Page 2271
Spin Density Waves and Magnons......Page 2282
Statistical Mechanics: Classical......Page 2290
Statistical Mechanics: Quantum......Page 2298
Stochastic Processes in Physics and Chemistry......Page 2303
Strongly Correlated Electron Systems......Page 2309
Structure Types and Classifications......Page 2317
Sum Rules and Kramers–Kronig Relations in Nonlinear Optics......Page 2323
Superconductivity: Applications......Page 2329
Superconductivity: BCS Theory......Page 2335
Superconductivity: Critical Currents......Page 2345
Superconductivity: Flux Quantization......Page 2352
Superconductivity: General Aspects......Page 2358
Superconductivity: Ginzburg–Landau Theory and Vortex Lattice......Page 2361
Superconductivity: Tunneling......Page 2368
Superconductors, High Tc......Page 2375
Superconductors, Metallic......Page 2384
Superfluidity......Page 2391
Surfaces and Interfaces, Electronic Structure of......Page 2396
Surfaces, Optical Properties of......Page 2407
Synchrotron Radiation......Page 2413
Thermal Conductivity at Low Temperatures......Page 2422
Thermodynamic Properties, General......Page 2427
Thermoelectric and Energy Conversion Devices......Page 2436
Thermoelectric Effect......Page 2443
Thin Films, Mechanical Behavior of......Page 2450
Tight-Binding Method in Electronic Structure......Page 2457
Time-Resolved Optical Spectroscopies......Page 2469
Transistors......Page 2477
Transition-Metal Compounds, Electronic and MagneticProperties of......Page 2485
Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 2503
Transport in Two-Dimensional Semiconductors......Page 2511
Treated Surfaces, Optical Properties of......Page 2519
Tunneling Devices......Page 2532
Valence Photoemission......Page 2542
van der Waals Bonding and Inert Gases......Page 2549
Vapor Transport Processing: Mechanisms......Page 2554
Vapor Transport Processing: Models and Simulations......Page 2559
Waves in Random Media......Page 2570
X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy......Page 2582
X-Ray Sources......Page 2586
X-Ray Standing Wave Techniques......Page 2593
X-Ray Topography......Page 2605
A......Page 2612
B......Page 2621
C......Page 2627
D......Page 2645
E......Page 2651
F......Page 2660
G......Page 2666
H......Page 2672
I......Page 2676
K......Page 2682
L......Page 2683
M......Page 2691
N......Page 2710
O......Page 2715
P......Page 2718
Q......Page 2734
R......Page 2738
S......Page 2743
T......Page 2770
V......Page 2780
W......Page 2782
X......Page 2784
Z......Page 2786