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دانلود کتاب Encyclopedia of computational neuroscience
دانلود کتاب دایره المعارف علوم اعصاب محاسباتی
مشخصات کتاب
Encyclopedia of computational neuroscience
ویرایش: [Second ed.] نویسندگان: Ranu Jung (editor), Dieter Jäger (editor) سری: ISBN (شابک) : 9781071610060, 1071610066 ناشر: سال نشر: 2022 تعداد صفحات: [3703] زبان: English فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود) حجم فایل: 131 Mb
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Preface to the Second Edition About the Editors About the Section Editors Contributors Overview Auditory Sensing Systems: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References Basal Ganglia: Overview Definition Detailed Description Basal Ganglia Structure Basal Ganglia Function Basal Ganglia and the Motor Symptoms of Parkinsonism Cross-References References Further Reading Bayesian Approaches in Computational Neuroscience: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References Biochemical Signaling Pathways and Diffusion: Overview Detailed Description Calcium Kinases Modeling Techniques Cross-References Brain Imaging: Overview Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Neuroimaging at the Mesoscale Neuroimaging at the Macroscale Cross-References References Brain-Machine Interface: Overview Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Unidirectional BMIs Afferent BMIs Efferent BMIs Cerebral BMIs Bidirectional BMIs Sensorimotor BMIs Cognitive BMIs Bidirectional BMIs for Neurological Disorders The Computing Device Cross-References References Brain-Scale Networks: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References Further Reading Brainstem Processing: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References Cable Theory: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References Cerebellum: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cerebellar Cortex Synaptic Plasticity Other Cells in the Cerebellar Cortex The Deep Cerebellar Nuclei Summary Cross-References References Computational Neuroanatomy: Overview Definition Detailed Description Overview of Chapters Other Related Chapters and Resources Conclusion Cross-References References Cortex: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References References Databases and Data Repositories in Computational Neuroscience: Overview Definition Detailed Description Databases of Computational Models Databases of Neuron Morphology and Physiology Resources for Brain Connectivity Other Resources Cross-References References Decision-Making: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References References Deep Brain Stimulation (Models, Theory, Techniques): Overview Detailed Description Cross-References References Dynamical Systems: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Dynamics of Disease States: Overview Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Key Entries Cross-References References Gamma and Theta Oscillations, Hippocampus: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References General Overview of Spinal Anatomy and Physiology Organization Definition Detailed Description The Spinal Cord Is Organized Segmentally Spinal Neurons Are Organized into Nuclei and Laminae Ascending and Descending Tracts in the White Matter Sensory Pathways The Lateral Division The Medial Division Motor Pathways Propriospinal Systems Spinal Pathways Are Plastic Activity-Dependent Plasticity Plasticity Following Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) Activity-Dependent Plasticity After SCI Summary Cross-References References Further Reading Information Theory: Overview Definition Detailed Description Subsequent Developments Current State Cross-References References Invertebrate Pattern Generation: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References References Invertebrate Sensory Systems: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Learning Rules: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References LFP Analysis: Overview Detailed Description Neurophysiological Basis of LFPs Oscillatory Properties of LFPs Modeling the Spectral Structure of LFPs Methodological Aspects of the LFP Cross-References References Low Frequency Oscillations (Anesthesia and Sleep): Overview Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Cellular Mechanisms Functional Consequences of Slow Rhythms Anesthesia and Slow Waves Cross-References References Model Reproducibility: Overview Definition Detailed Description Model Sharing Simulator Independent Specification of Models and Simulations Improved Research Reporting Cross-References References Modeling of Disease: Physical and Molecular Level, Overview Definition Detailed Description Techniques Locations Diseases Conclusions Cross-References References Motoneurons and Neuromuscular Systems: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References Multistability in Neurodynamics: Overview Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References Acknowledgment References Neural Population Models and Cortical Field Theory: Overview Cross-References Neuromodulation: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Neuromorphic Engineering: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References Reference Neuronal Model Optimization: Overview Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Why Do Neuronal Model Parameters Need to Be Optimized? Neuronal Model Optimization Methods Visualization of Neuronal Model Parameter Spaces Beyond Optimization Cross-References Olfaction: Overview Definition Detailed Description References Further Reading Peripheral Nerve Interfaces: Overview Definition Detailed Description Peripheral Nerve Interface Methods and Applications Summary Cross-References Phase Response Curves: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References Retinal/Visual Interfaces (Models, Theory, Techniques): Overview Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Software Tools for Modeling in Computational Neuroscience: Overview Definition Detailed Description Simulators Abstract Neuron Simulations Conductance-Based, Multicompartmental Simulators Reaction-Diffusion Modeling Interoperability Frameworks Neuronal Morphology Databasing and Generation Useful Resources Other Software for Neuronal Simulation Population-Based Modeling Hardware-Based Modeling Solutions Systems Biology/Bioinformatics Tools Conclusions References Somatosensory System: Overview Detailed Description Pain Thermoreception Touch Proprioception Cross-References Spectral Methods in Neural Data Analysis: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Wikipedia Spike Train Analysis: Overview Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Spiking Network Models and Theory: Overview Definition Detailed Description Historical Background Spiking Neuron Models Integrate and Fire Models Subthreshold Dynamics Spike Generation Threshold Adaptation Synaptic Input Spike-Response Model Stochastic Spike Generation and Escape Noise Stochastic Models of Neural Activity Connections Static Connections Dale´s Principle Short-Term Plasticity Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity Network Topologies Feedforward Networks Synfire Chains Recurrent Networks Neighborhood Preserving Topologies Network Dynamics Cross-References Acknowledgment References Further Reading Spinal and Neuromechanical Integration: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References References Spinal Interfaces: Overview Definition Detailed Description High-Density Surface Electromyography Transcutaneous Stimulation Epidural Stimulation Intradural Stimulation Intraspinal Stimulation Electrode Technologies: Issues and Potential Solutions References Synaptic Dynamics: Overview Definition Detailed Description Fast Dynamics Short-Term Dynamics Long-Term Dynamics Cross-References References Further Reading Vertebrate Pattern Generation: Overview Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Vertebrate Central Pattern Generators Locomotor CPG in Mammals The Half-Center Concept of the Locomotor CPG The Unit Burst Generators Concept The Two-Level Model of the Locomotor CPG Rhythmic Activity in Isolated Spinal Cord Preparations of Rodents Modeling the Effects of Genetic Transformations on the Locomotor Pattern Respiratory CPG in Mammals Respiratory Pattern and Spatial Organization of the Respiratory CPG The Pre-Bötzinger Complex and Rhythm Generation In Vitro Network-Based Versus Pacemaker-Driven Mechanisms for Respiratory Rhythmogenesis and Hybrid Pacemaker-Network Models The Respiratory CPG and Spatial and Functional Hierarchy of Multiple Rhythmogenic Mechanisms Respiratory Rhythm Generation and Coupled Oscillators Intrinsic Neuronal Properties Involved in Rhythmic Bursting in the Brainstem and Spinal Cord References Vestibular System: Overview Detailed Description Cross-References A α1G α1H α1I Absorbing Boundary Accumulation of Evidence in Decision-Making Definition Detailed Description Mathematical Foundations Evidence Accumulation in Models of Decision Making The Drift-Diffusion Model Evidence Accumulation in Neurons References Acoustic Memory Acoustic Timbre Recognition Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Why Do Different Sound Sources Produce Different Timbres? Dimensions Versus Features Sound Representations Perceptual Data Neural Bases Timbre Recognition by Machines Perspectives Cross-References References Action Planning Action Potential Back-Propagation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Determinants of Action Potential Back-Propagation Functional Role Techniques to Study Back-Propagation Cross-References Acknowledgment References Further Reading Action Potential Initiation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References Further Reading Action Potential Model Action Selection Activation of the Olfactory Sensory Neurons as a Function of Odor Concentration Adaptation Adaptation in Sensory Cortices, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Adaptation as Optimal Coding Modeling Underlying Neural Mechanisms Cross-References References Adaptive Control Adaptive Design Optimization Adaptive Sampling Adaptive Stimulus Optimization Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Overview Optimizing Firing Rate Iso-response Surfaces Optimizing Information Estimating and Comparing Models Cross-References References Afferent Feedback to Neural Oscillators Afferent Input to Rhythm Generating Networks Algorithmic Generation of Motoneuron Morphology Algorithmic Reconstruction of Motoneuron Morphology Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Parameterization Algorithms Summary Cross-References References Algorithms for Generating Neuronal Morphologies Amari Model Definition Historic Background and Applications Theory Delay Neural Field Equation and Homogeneous Kernels Advantages of the Approach Limitations Cross-References References Further Reading Ambiguous Stimuli AMPA Glutamate Receptor (AMPA Receptor), Conductance Models Definition Detailed Description Kinetics of AMPA Receptors Computational Functions of AMPA Receptors AMPA Synaptic Dynamics Cross-References References Further Reading Amplitude-Amplitude Coupling Anatomy and Physiology of the Mammalian Auditory System The Auditory Nerve The Cochlear Nuclear Complex Primary Afferents Ventral Cochlear Nucleus Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus The Superior Olivary Complex Lateral Superior Olive Medial Nucleus of the Trapezoid Body Medial Superior Olive Superior Paraolivary Nucleus Periolivary Nuclei The Nuclei of the Lateral Lemniscus The Ventral Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus: The Monaural System The Dorsal Nucleus of the Lateral Lemniscus: The Binaural System The Inferior Colliculus The Central Nucleus of the Inferior Colliculus The Dorsal Cortex of the Inferior Colliculus The Lateral Cortex of the Inferior Colliculus The Rostral Cortex of the Inferior Colliculus The Medial Geniculate Body The Ventral Division of the Medial Geniculate Complex The Dorsal Division of the Medial Geniculate Complex The Medial Division of the Medial Geniculate Complex The Auditory Cortex The Core Region of Auditory Cortex The Belt Region of Auditory Cortex The Descending Auditory Pathways The Corticofugal Pathways The Colliculofugal Pathways The Olivocochlear System Cross-References Acknowledgment References Anesthesia, Neural Population Models of Definition Detailed Description Classes of General Anesthesia The Induction: Recovery Trajectory Cellular Effects of General Anesthetic Drugs Modeling Anesthetic Effects Cross-References References Animal Calls Animal Models of Pain Anomalous Rectifier Potassium Channels Anti-Hebbian Learning Definition Detailed Description Basic Formulation Theoretical Perspectives Neurobiological Underpinnings Applications of Anti-Hebbian Learning Cross-References References Aperture Problem Application of Declarative Programming in Neurobiology Definition Detailed Description Declarative Programming Declarative Models of Neurobiological and Neurodegenerative Processes Conclusion References Applications of Information Theory to Analysis of Neural Data Definition Detailed Description Information Analysis of Spike Trains to Investigate the Role of Spike Times in Sensory Coding Information Analysis of Local Field Potentials to Examine the Information Content of Network Oscillations Information Analysis of Imaging Data to Study Neural Population Coding or Coupling Between Different Neural Signals Acknowledgment References Artificial Retina Artificial Silicon Retina (ASR) Artificial Vision Associations and Rewards in the Auditory Cortex Definition Detailed Description Classical View of Brain Structures Reflecting Associations and Reinforcement Learning Neuromodulators Neuronal Correlates of Association Neuronal Correlates of Rewards References Associative Learning Attentional Top-Down Modulation, Models of Definition Detailed Description The Case for Attention Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down Taking a Computational Approach to Attention The Integrated Saliency Map Conclusion Cross-References References Attractor Neural Network Auditory Brainstem Responses Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Transient-Evoked ABRs Frequency-Following ABRs Cross-References References Auditory Cortex: Separating Signal from Noise Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References Further Reading Auditory Event-Related Potential (AERP) Auditory Event-Related Potentials Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Measurement and Derivation of AERPs/AEFs AERP Waves, Components, Naming Conventions Middle-Latency AERP Responses Long-Latency AERP Responses Attention-Related AERP Responses AERPs Reflecting Speech and Music processing Development of AERPs Modelling AERP´s: Some General Principles Utility of AERP for Clinical Practice AERPs: Advantages and Limitations Cross-References References Auditory Evoked Brainstem Responses Auditory Evoked Field (AEF) Auditory Evoked Potential (AEP) Auditory Frequency-Following Responses Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Introduction to the FFR Recording the FFR: Technical Considerations Neural Generators Developmental Issues: The FFR from Birth to Adulthood Effects of Experience-Dependent Plasticity on the FFR FFR in Challenging Conditions Conclusions Cross-References References Auditory Memory Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Preperceptual Auditory Storage Synthesized Auditory Memory Generated Abstract Memory How Auditory Memory Is Used References Auditory Pathway Auditory Perceptual Grouping Auditory Perceptual Organization Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Introduction Grouping Principles Auditory Events Gestalt Grouping Principles Auditory Objects Auditory Scene Analysis Simultaneous Grouping Models of Event Formation Sequential Grouping Models of Auditory Streaming Competition and Selection Modeling Multistability in Auditory Streaming Neural Correlates of Perceptual Organization Conclusions and Open Questions Cross-References References Auditory Precedence Effect Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Effects of Room Acoustics on Auditory Spatial Cues The Precedence Effect Mechanisms of the Precedence Effect Cross-References References Auditory Processing in Insects Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Overview and Background Large Diversity of Hearing Insects and their Ears Goals of Hearing and Auditory Processing Acoustic Communication Detection and Avoidance of Predators Host Finding Two Types of Ears in Insects and their Constraints by Size and Signals Themes of Auditory Processing in Insects Basic Steps of Auditory Processing: Transduction and Information Coding by Sensory Neurons Processing of Signal Envelopes within the Auditory Pathway Temporal Resolution and Temporal Integration Transformation of Coding Along the Auditory Pathway Central Processing in the Frequency or Time Domain? Global Algorithms of Coding Local Mechanisms of Coding Processing under the Constraints of Noise: A Twofold Problem Directional Hearing Conclusions Acknowledgment References Auditory Prosthesis Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Components and Signal Processing of Multichannel Implants Computational Modeling Electrical Volume Conduction in the Cochlea Simulating the Auditory Nerve Fiber Responses Integrated Use of Volume Conduction and Neural Models: State of the Art Cross-References References Further Reading Auditory Recognition Auditory Scene Analysis Auditory Scene Segmentation Auditory Sensory Receptor Cell, Model Auditory Thalamocortical Transformations Definition Detailed Description Thalamic and Cortical Organization The Thalamus The Ventral Division of the Medial Geniculate Body The Dorsal Division of the Medial Geniculate Body The Medial Division of the Medial Geniculate Body Inhibitory Circuits in the Thalamus The Cerebral Cortex Receptive Fields and the Thalamocortical Transformation Spectral Receptive Field Temporal Receptive Field Rodent Auditory Cortex and Thalamus Cat Auditory Cortex and Thalamus Primate Auditory Cortex and Thalamus Latency References Auditory Transducer, Model Auditory-Nerve Response, Afferent Signals Definition Detailed Description Anatomical Foundations Spontaneous Activity Driven Activity Frequency Tuning Sound Level Dependence Adaptation Phase Locking References Augmentation Autoassociative Networks Automated Parameter Search in Small Network Central Pattern Generators Definition Detailed Description ``Brute-Force´´ Explorations of Predefined Parameter Spaces Explorations Utilizing Heuristic Optimization Approaches Applications Cross-References References Axon Model Axon, Modeling Definition Detailed Description Hodgkin-Huxley Model of the Action Potential Membrane Voltage Sodium Current Potassium Current Action Potential Propagation Speed and Reliability of Propagation Myelinated Axon Ion Channel Noise Axon Development Cross-References References Axon-Glial Signaling B Back-Propagating Action Potentials (bAPs) Back-Propagating Spikes Baer-Rinzel (BR) Continuum Model Balance Control Dynamics Balance Following Cochlear Implantation Balanced Propagation Balanced State Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Empirical Evidence for a ``High-Conductance State´´ Consequences for Single-Neuron Computations Consequences for Network-Based Computations Discussion and Future Directions References Baroreceptor Reflex Baroreflex Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Pressure-Electrical Transduction Baroreceptors Conductance-Based Baroreceptor Model Firing Rate-Based Baroreceptor Model Nucleus Tractus Solitarius (NTS) Intrinsic Properties-Based Model Inhibition-Based Model Barotopic Hypothesis Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activities Respiratory Baroreflex The Role of Cardiopulmonary Baroreceptors Baroreflex and Mayer Waves References Basal Ganglia System as an Engine for Exploration Definition Detailed Description Reinforcement Learning and the Basal Ganglia The Indirect Pathway and Exploration The Basic Model Striatum The STN-GPe System GPi Action Selection in Thalamus Simulation Experiments Binary Action Selection Modeling the N-Armed Bandit Problem Climbing Value Gradient Using δV Discussion References Basal Ganglia: Beta Oscillations Definition Detailed Description Relationship to Behavior Relationship with Symptoms Models of the Effects of Beta Oscillations Origin of Beta Oscillations Computational Models of Beta Generation Model-Based Data Analysis References Basal Ganglia: Bradykinesia Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Anatomical Overview Dopaminergic Pathways Physiological and Behavioral Phenomena Types of Theoretical Models of Bradykinesia Verbal-Conceptual Models Mathematical and Computational Models Cortico-Basal Ganglia-Thalamic Interactions Cortico-Spino-Muscular Interactions Cross-References References Further Reading Scholarpedia Wikipedia Basal Ganglia: Control of Saccades Definition Detailed Description Basal Ganglia Saccadic Circuitry Computational Models of the Basal Ganglia Saccadic Circuitry Cross-References References Further Reading Basal Ganglia: Decision-Making Definition Detailed Description Decision-Making Utilizing Go and No-Go Pathways Basal Ganglia Model for Multi-Choice Decision-Making Basal Ganglia Mechanism for Optimal Threshold Modulation Future Directions Cross-References References Basal Ganglia: Dopaminergic Cell Models Definition Detailed Description Importance Anatomy Firing Patterns Background Firing Burst Firing Bursts In Vivo In Vitro Bursting Induced by Stimulation of NMDA Receptors In Vitro Bursting Induced by Apamin Summary of Models Conclusions and Future Directions Weak Spike-Producing Currents Determine Low-Frequency and Broad Action Potentials Calcium-Dependent and Calcium-Independent Oscillations Distinct Responses to AMPA and NMDA Receptor Stimulation Major Future Directions for Modeling Firing Patterns of the DA Neuron Cross-References References Basal Ganglia: Globus Pallidus Cellular Models Definition Detailed Description Goals of Globus Pallidus Cellular Models Models that Capture the Detailed Dynamic Properties of Globus Pallidus Neurons Models that Capture the Interaction Between GP and Subthalamic Nucleus (STN) Integration of GP Neuron Models in Large-Scale Network Simulations of Action Selection Modeling the Effects of Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson´s Disease Cross-References References Further Reading Basal Ganglia: Habit Formation Definition Detailed Description The Representation of Habits Properties of Habits Independence of Awareness Lack of Flexibility Insensitivity to Devaluation Automaticity Incremental Learning Dependence on Feedback Brain Mechanisms of Habit Double Dissociations Between Memory Systems Basal Ganglia Loops Communication Between Loops Plasticity in the Striatum Interactions Between Learning Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Basal Ganglia: Mechanisms for Action Selection Definition Detailed Description Why Action Selection? How Can the Basal Ganglia Circuit ``Select´´? Multiple Mechanisms Contributing to Action Selection Competition Switching The ``Indirect´´ Pathway: Prevention of Selection and Scaling of Selection Cross-References References Basal Ganglia: Songbird Models Definition Detailed Description BG Functions in Songbirds: Experimental Background Reinforcement Learning in Songbirds Different Models of Song Production and the Involvement of the AFP Template Comparison, Efference Copy, or Inverse Model? References Basal Ganglia: Striatal Models Cellular Detail Definition Detailed Description Striatal Function in Disease and Health Cell Classes in the Striatum Simple SPN Models Complex SPN Models Interneuron Models Conclusion Cross-References References Basal Ganglia: Subthalamic Nucleus Cellular Models Definition Detailed Description Why Build a Model of Neurons in the Subthalamic Nucleus? The Terman et al. Model Firing Pattern Rebound Effective Time Constant Otsuka Model and Plateau Potentials Gillies and Willshaw Model Farries and Wilson Model Phase Model Summary References Bayesian Estimation Bayesian Inference with Spiking Neurons Definition Detailed Description General Framework Dynamics of Bayesian Spiking Neurons Extension to Multiple Stimuli Some Applications of the BSN Framework Relation to Other Approaches References Bayesian Modeling of Neural Recordings Bayesian Neural Data Analysis Beat Behavior of Just-Hatched Frog Tadpoles and the Neuronal Networks Underlying It Behavioural Analysis, Bayesian Definition Detailed Description Posterior Probabilities Versus P-values Hierarchical Models Model Comparison Computation References Bidirectional Brain-Machine Interface Bifurcation Analysis Definition Detailed Description Spiking Bursting Transient Activity Conclusions Acknowledgment References Bifurcations Dynamics of Single Neurons and Small Networks Definition Detailed Description What Is a Bifurcation? Typical Bifurcations in the Dynamics of Single Neurons Bifurcations in Small Neuronal Networks Concluding Remarks Acknowledgment References Bifurcations, Neural Population Models and Definition Detailed Description Types of Bifurcations Bifurcations of the Jansen-Rit Model Cross-References References Bimolecular Reactions, Modeling of Definition Detailed Description Formalism for Two Conformational States Limitations References Binary Neural Network Binocular/Monocular Rivalry Biomechanical Model of Low Back Pain Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cadaveric Models In Vivo Animal Models Computational/Mathematical Models Cross-References References Biomechanical Modeling of Traumatic Brain Injury Abbreviations Definition Detailed Description Model Validation Incorporation of Neuroimaging Cross-References References BioModels BioModels Database: A Public Repository for Sharing Models of Biological Processes Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Model Categories Model Annotation Model Search, Browse, and Retrieval Web Services Cross-References References Bionic Ear Bionic Eye Bionic Vision Biophysical Mechanisms that Photoreceptors Use to Sample Light Information Biophysical Models Biophysical Models of Calcium-Dependent Exocytosis Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Sequential Ca2+-Binding Model Parallel Ca2+-Binding Model Cooperative Ca2+-Binding Model Models with Independent Sets of Ca2+-Binding Sites Exocytosis Rate at a Steady Ca2+ Concentration Cumulative Release During Prolonged Ca2+ Elevation Asynchronous Synaptic Transmission Multiple Vesicle Pool Models Models with Ca2+-Dependent Vesicle Priming Spatially Resolved Exocytosis Models and the Vesicle-Channel Coupling Acknowledgment References Biophysical Models of Olfactory Mitral and Granule Cells Definition Detailed Description Morphological and Electrophysiological Properties of Mitral Cells Development of a Biophysical MC Model: An Example Other Biophysical MC Models Morphological and Electrophysiological Properties of Granule Cell Development of a Biophysical GC Model: An Example Other Biophysical GC Models Summary References Biophysical Models: Neurovascular Coupling, Cortical Microcircuits, and Metabolism Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Neuronal Mass Models Examples of Relationships between Mesoscopic Variables Neurovascular Coupling Functional Hyperemia Cortical Microcircuits Main Microcircuit Principles Metabolism Postsynaptic and Action Potentials The Glycolytic Pathway The Glycogen-Shunt Proposition The Astrocyte-Neuron Lactate Shuttle TCA Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation The Glutamate/GABA-Glutamine Cycle Oxygen Transport Major Controversies References Biophysics of Adaptation in a Computational Model of the Leech T Neuron Definition Detailed Description References Bistability BK Channels (KCa1.1) Boltzmann Machine Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Master Equation Description Mean-Field Boltzmann Machines Learning in Boltzmann Machines Cross-References References Bottom-Up Attention, Models of Definition Detailed Description History, Scope, and Organization Bottom-Up Attention Modeling: Pre-deep Learning Era Bottom-Up Attention Modeling: Deep Learning Era Biological Plausibility of Classic and Deep Saliency Models Benchmarks, Datasets, and New Data Collection Methodologies State-of-the-Art Performance Model Comparison over the MIT300 Dataset Model Comparison over the CAT200 Dataset Where Do Models Fail? Discussion and Outlook Cross-References References Braided Electrodes Definition Detailed Description Histology: Short Summary of Histology Special Techniques Enabled by Braiding Combinatorics References Brain Architecture Management System (BAMS) Definition Detailed Description BAMS Structure BAMS Interfaces and Inference Engines BAMS2 BAMS: Inserted Information References Brain Atlases Definition Cross-References Brain Computer Interfaces Brain Damage Brain Energy Metabolism Definition Detailed Description The Energetic Cost of Brain Electrophysiological Activity: Discoveries and Mysteries Beyond the Naked Neuron: The Role of Astroglia Cerebral Metabolism in Health and Disease Energy Metabolism from Top Down Zooming In: Neurons and Astrocytes Computational Models Cross-References References Brain Extracellular Space: A Compartment for Intercellular Communication and Drug Delivery Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Experimental Approaches Computational Approaches Conclusions Acknowledgment References Brain Ischemia and Stroke Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Nutrient Delivery Initiation of the Ischemic Cascade Disruption of Homoeostasis Use of Boolean Networks in Ischemia Modeling Future Considerations References Brain-Computer Interfaces BrainInfo Definition Detailed Description The BrainInfo Portal (http://braininfo.org) NeuroNames (http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/Nnont.aspx) NeuroMaps (http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/MapViewData.aspx) References Brain-Machine Interface and Neuroimaging Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References Brain-Machine Interfaces Brain-Machine-Brain Interface BrainMap Definition Detailed Description Standardized Coordinates BrainMap Coding Scheme Activation Likelihood Estimation References Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEP) Brainstem Motoneurons, Models of Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Brian Spiking Neural Network Simulator Definition Detailed Description Philosophy Overview and Example Design Features Cross-References References Further Reading Brute-Force Model Databases Bursting in Neurons and Small Networks Definition Detailed Description Introduction and Background Endogenous Bursting in Individual Neurons Classification of Bursting Neurons Using Bifurcation Theory Models of Bursting Neurons Reduced Models Minimal (Phenomenological) Biophysical Models Biophysical Properties of Bursting Neurons Bursting in Networks of Neurons Principles Underlying Rhythmic Bursting in Networks Half-Center Oscillators The Role of Electrical Coupling Segmented Networks of Bursting Neurons Summary Cross-References Acknowledgment References Further Reading C Cable Equation Definition Detailed Description Brief History of Cable Theory in Neuroscience The Cable Equation Solutions for the Infinite Cable Steady-State Solutions for Semi-infinite and Finite Cables Steady-State Solutions for Branched Dendritic Trees Transient Solutions to the Cable Equation Insights from Cable Equation Solutions Cross-References References Further Reading Cable Model(s) Calcium Buffering: Models of Definitions Detailed Description Background Second-Order Buffer Reaction Chemical Reaction Kinetic Model Rapid Buffer Approximation (RBA) Competition Between Rapid and Slow Buffers Competition Between Ca2+ and Mg2+ Higher-Order Buffering Spatial Resolution Limitations References Further Reading Calcium Dynamics in Neuronal Microdomains: Modeling, Stochastic Simulations, and Data Analysis Definition Detailed Description Neuronal Microdomains Diffusion in Neuronal Microdomains: Stochastic Modeling Description of Calcium Stochastic Trajectories The Langevin Equations Specification of the Hydrodynamic Flow Rate Constants and Molecular Dynamics Backward-Binding Rate Forward-Binding Rate Modeling the Interaction of Calcium Ion with Surface or Receptors Absorption Partial Absorption Schematic Description Partial Reflecting Condition in Dimension Larger Than 2 Generic Modeling of Calcium Ions at Pumps or Exchangers Modeling Calcium Influx from Channels: NMDA Receptors, AMPA Receptors, and VSCC Calcium Influx Through NMDAR Calcium Influx Through AMPAR Influx Through VSCC Stochastic Simulation of Calcium in a Dendritic Spine Space Exploration Two Stages of Calcium Concentration Decay Multiscale Modeling of Connecting a Continuum Bath with Single Molecular Dynamics Diffusion Laws in Microdomains with Small Openings Probability Density Function of an Ion Transition Probability Density Function with Partial Reflecting Boundary Condition Exit Diffusion Rate from Dendritic Spines Remarks Influence of Calcium Buffers on the Residence Time of Calcium in Microdomains Such as the Dendritic Spines Residence Time of Calcium in the Dendritic Spines with a Hydrodynamic Flow Crowding Model of a Dendrite Modeling Diffusion in a Heterogeneous Dendritic Cytoplasm Calcium Spread Following High-Frequency Stimulation Calcium Extrusion Along a Cylinder: Homogenization of Hole into a Killing Rate Homogenization of Perforated by Partially Reflecting Boundary Particles Splitting: Absorbed Versus Arrived Calcium Cascade Initiating Cellular Activation Probability to Bind a Fixed Number of Molecules During a Transient Process Coarse-Grained Markov Models Discussion and Conclusion References Calcium Dysregulation in Neurodegenerative Diseases Definition Detailed Description Mechanisms Underlying Ca2+ Dysregulation in Neurodegenerative Diseases Computational Models of Neurodegenerative Diseases with Ca2+ Dynamics Conclusions Acknowledgment References Calcium Pumps, Models of Definition Detailed Description References Calcium Release, Models of Definition Detailed Description Calcium Channels InsP3 Receptor Deterministic Model Stochastic Model Accounting for Mode Changes Ryanodine Receptor Deterministic Model Stochastic Model Including Regulation by Ca2+ in the ER Influx Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate Metabolism Mitochondria References Calcium Waves, Models of Definition Detailed Description Basic Mechanism of Ca2+ Signaling Mechanisms of Calcium Waves Example of Deterministic Model for Ca2+ Waves Example of a Stochastic Model for Ca2+ Wave Conclusions References Calcium-Dependent Potassium Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Gating Properties Effect on Intrinsic Neuronal Excitability Effect on Synaptic Transmission Acknowledgment References Calmodulin, Models of Definition Detailed Description References Capacitance, Membrane Definition Detailed Description Measurement of Membrane Capacitance Specific Membrane Capacitance Acknowledgment References Cardiac Excitable Tissue Pathology (Ion Channels) Definition Detailed Description Ionic Mechanisms of Cardiac Action Potential Perturbations in Ion Channels and Associated Processes Cause Disease Heterogeneity of Ion Channel Expression in the Heart: Dispersion of Action Potential Morphology Leading to Arrhythmia Mutations Can Result in Multiple Phenotypes Calcium Dynamics and its Regulation of the Na+ Channel Conclusions References Cardiac Excitable Tissue Pathology (Ischemia) Definition Detailed Description Effects of Derangements to pH and Phosphometabolites Accumulation of Extracellular K Reactive Oxygen Species Disruption of Electrical Function and Arrhythmia Triggers Mechanical Dysfunction Conclusions References Categorical Decisions Definition Detailed Description Introduction Behavioral Tasks for Studying Categorical Decisions Models of Decision-Making Open Questions and Future Directions References Cav1.1-4 ``Long-Lasting´´ Type (L Type) Cav2.1 ``Purkinje´´ Type (P/Q Type) Cav2.2 ``Non-L Type´´ (N Type) Cav2.3 ``Residual´´ Type (R Type) Cav3 CCDB Cell Centered Database Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References CellML Definition Further Reading Center-Surround Modulations Center-Surround Processing, Computational Role of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description From Image Processing to Object Recognition Feature Integration and Gestalt Psychology Normative and Probabilistic Approaches Neurophysiological and Psychophysical Evidence for CSP Cross-References References Center-Surround Processing, Network Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Models of Center-Surround Processing in Early Vision Models of Center-Surround Processing Across Multiple Cortical Areas Modeling Techniques Discussion and Future Directions References Further Reading Central Vestibular Signal Processing Definition Detailed Description Subdividing the Vestibular Nuclear Complex Analysis of the Medial Vestibular Nucleus Functional Organization of the MVN Revealed by Combined Studies Future Studies of the Central Vestibular System Cross-References References Cercal System Definition Detailed Description Overview Functional Organization of the Mechanosensory Hair Array Representation of Stimulus Direction Dendritic Integration in the Giant Interneurons (GIs) Dendritic Ca2+ Elevation and Ca2+-Mediated Adaptation Neural Encoding and Transmission Response Properties in Natural Condition References Cerebellar Long Term Depression Cerebellar LTD Cerebrovascular Disease Channelopathy Chaos, Neural Population Models and Definition Detailed Description Chaotic Systems Chaos in NPMs Brain Dynamics: Stochastic Processes or Deterministic Chaos? Cross-References References Characterization of Motor Learning in Continuous Tracking Tasks Chloride Channels Definition Detailed Description Function Chloride Flux and the Electrochemical Gradient Chloride Transporters and Chloride Homeostasis Synaptic Inhibition and Chloride Flux Summary References Choice Behavior Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Choice Behavior in Microeconomics: Revealed Preferences Choice Behavior in Animals: Optimal Foraging Choice Distribution: Herrnstein´s Matching Law Choice Behavior Under Risk: Expected Utility Choice Behavior with Delayed Outcomes: Discounted Utility Ecological Rationality: Sequential Background-Foreground Choices Neural Correlates of Choice Behavior Neural Coding of Risk, Probability, and Delays Associated with Outcomes Risk Probability Delay Neural Representation of Value in Foraging References Chronic Electrical Stimulation Clone Nomenclature Closed-Loop Experiments Closed-Loop Neuroprosthesis Cochlear Implant Cochlear Inner Hair Cell, Model Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Approaches to Model the IHC Transfer Function Applications Cross-References References Further Reading Cocktail Party Problem Coding Accuracy of Neural Populations Coding Efficiency of Neural Populations Coexistence of Bursting Regimes Definition Detailed Description Overview Necessary Components Computational Example Implications Cross-References References Coexistence of Pathological and Functional Neuronal Regimes Definition Detailed Description Introduction Multistability in Single Neurons Multistability in Neural Networks Functional Regimes Pathological Regimes Time-Varying Parameters Summary Glossary References Cognition and Control Cognition, Bayesian Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Categorization Learning and Causal Inference Language Cross-References References Coherence and Granger Causality Spectral Analysis Coherence of Local Field Potentials Collations of Connectivity Data on the Macaque Brain (CoCoMac) Synonyms Definition References Collision Avoidance Models, Visually Guided Definition Detailed Description Visually Guided Collision Avoidance Behaviors Looming Stimuli VGCABs in Invertebrates Looming-Sensitive Neurons in Invertebrates LGMD/DCMD Neurons in Locust LGMD/DCMD Responses to Looming Stimuli Experimental Characterization and Computational Modeling of Presynaptic Circuitry and Feedforward Excitation to the LGMD Subfi... Experimental Characterization of Lateral Inhibition (LI) and Feedforward Inhibition (FFI) in LGMD to Looming Stimuli Spike-Frequency Adaptation Process and Its Influence in the LGMD Tuning to Looming Stimuli Computational/Biophysical Model of LGMD Response to Looming Stimuli Phenomenological Models in Other LSNs Linking Sensory Coding and Behavioral Responses Conclusion Cross-References References Color Computational Vision Color Vision, Computational Methods for Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Retina Computational Methods for the Retina Receptoral Gain Control Mechanisms Post-Receptoral Color Processing Cortical Color Processing Computational Models of Color Processing in the Visual Cortex Color Constancy Color Appearance Cross-References References Comparative Analysis of Half-Center Central Pattern Generators (CPGs) Definition Detailed Description Classifying Half-Center CPGs: Low and High Activity States and Transitions Between Them Transition-Dependent Properties of Half-Center CPGs Cross-References References Compartment Model for Nuclear Medicine Compartmental Models of Spinal Motoneurons Definition Detailed Description Equivalent Cylinder Representation of the Dendritic Tree Formulation of Compartmental Models Early Models of Action Potential Generation and Repetitive Firing Synaptic Integration in Passive Dendritic Trees Limited Charge Transfer in Passive Dendritic Trees Repetitive Firing and Synaptic Integration in Motoneuron Models with Active Dendritic Trees Limitations Cross-References References Further Reading Compilation of Published Tracer Injection Studies in the Macaque Brain Complex Auditory Brainstem Response (cABR) Complex Network Theory in Neuroscience Compulsory Averaging Computation with Dopaminergic Modulation Definition Detailed Description Dopamine Basics Reinforcement Learning Models Gain Modulation and Working Memory Computational Modeling of Dopamine-Associated Disorders Cross-References References Computation with Population Codes Definition Detailed Description Fundamentals of Computation Representation of Single Variable in Population Codes Population Vector Estimator (PVE) Optimal Linear Estimator (OLE) Center of Mass Estimator (COM) Maximum Likelihood Estimator (ML) Maximum a Posteriori Estimator (MAP) High-Dimensional Population Codes Basis Sets Transformations with Population Codes Population Coding in Time Conclusion References Computation with Serotonergic Modulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Introduction 5-HT and Rhythmic Motor Networks Serotonergic Modulation of Sensory Systems References Computational Analysis of Rodent Spinal CPG Definition Detailed Description Background Neurobiology of the Rodent Spinal CPG Computational Models Coupled Cell Networks Rybak Et al. Model Sherwood et al. Model References Further Reading Computational Glioscience Computational Maps Computational Model-Based Development of Novel Stimulation Algorithms Definition Detailed Description Standard High-Frequency Stimulation Coordinated Reset Stimulation Spike Timing-Dependent Plasticity Multisite Linear Delayed Feedback Nonlinear Delayed Feedback Mixed Nonlinear Delayed Feedback Proportional-Integro-Differential Feedback Closed-Loop DBS Summary Glossary References Computational Modeling Computational Modeling of Olfactory Behavior Definition Detailed Description Example 1: Odor Concentration and Spike Timing in the Insect Antennal Lobe Example 2: The Problem of Concentration Invariance in the Olfactory Bulb Example 3: Effects of Nicotinic Receptor Activation on Odor Discrimination - Behavioral Experiments and Biophysical Modeling Conclusion References Computational Models of 3D-Cue Integration Definition Detailed Description Depth Cues and Multiple Processes of Image Formation Depth Cues and Mappings to External 3D Structure Normative Theories of Cue Integration Challenges of the Bayesian Approach Alternative Models Future Directions Summary Cross-References References Computational Models of Auditory Stream Segregation Definition Detailed Description Signal Processing and Temporal Coherence Neuronal Competition Other Neuronal Frameworks Statistical and Bayesian Frameworks Discussion Acknowledgment References Computational Models of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) Definition Detailed Description DBS for Parkinsonism Computational Models of the Electric Field Associated with DBS for Parkinsonism Computational Models Focusing on the Network Response to DBS for Parkinsonism Cross-References References Further Reading Computational Models of Mammalian Respiratory CPG Definition Detailed Description Respiratory Motor Patterns and CPG Activity: Neurophysiology CPG Network Architecture and Circuit Components Recent Computational Models: Overview Conductance-Based Computational Models Single Model Neuron Conductance Descriptions and Population Modeling: Mathematical Formulations Dynamical Operation of Model Core Circuitry Some Model Limitations Activity-Based Computational Models Dynamical Operation During Three-Phase Rhythmic Pattern Generation: New Insights Control of Oscillation Period and Phase Durations in the Three-Phase Rhythm-Generating State Summary Perspectives References Computational Models of Modulation of Oscillatory Dynamics Definition Detailed Description Background and Scope Stimulus- or State-Dependent Modulations of Oscillatory Dynamics Imposed Rhythmic Modulation of Neural Dynamics in Computational Models Models of Nested Oscillations Attentional and Neuromodulatory Effects on Oscillatory Dynamics in Computational Models Cross-References References Computational Models of Motor Pools Definition Detailed Description References Computational Models of Neural Retina Synonyms Definition Introduction Single-Compartment Models Morphologically Realistic Models Block-Compartment Models Discrete-Neuronal Network Models Continuum Models Empirical Models of Retinal Function Outlook on Retinal Modeling References Computational Models of Neuromodulation Definition Detailed Description Reward and Punishment Uncertainty References Computational Models of Painful Loading Computational Models of Retinal Function Computational Models of Visual Illusions Computational Models Supporting Parameter Finding for Deep Brain Stimulation Definition Detailed Description Deep Brain Stimulation Parameter Settings FEM Models Neuronal Models Making Predictions References Computational Models to Optimize the Electrodes and Waveforms for Deep Brain Stimulation Definition Detailed Description Parameterization of Electrodes and Waveforms Volume Conductor Models of Electrodes in Brain Tissue Cable Models of Neural Elements Optimization Algorithms Optimal Electrodes and Waveforms References Computational Neuroscience of Color Computational Olfaction Definition Detailed Description Neural Networks Involved in Olfactory Computation Conclusions References Further Reading Computational Psychiatry Definition Detailed Description Connectionist and Neural Network Models Reinforcement Learning Models Predominantly Model-Free RL Accounts of Psychiatric Diseases Predominantly Model-Based Accounts of Psychiatric Diseases Game-Theoretical Approaches to Social Dysfunction Limitations Acknowledgment References Computational Structural Biology Computational Synthesis of Motoneuron Morphology Computer Generation of Motoneuron Morphology Concentration-Response Functions Conditional Rate Function Conductance Co-regulation Conductance Scaling Conductance-Based Models of Nonlinear Dynamics in Vertebrate Motoneurons Definition Detailed Description Models of Motoneuron Bistability A Minimal Motoneuron Model for Understanding Bistable Membrane Behavior Hysteresis in the Frequency-Current Relationship and Mechanism Underlying Bistability Cross-References References Connectionist Models of CPG Networks Detailed Description Cross-References References Connectivity Analysis in Normal and Pathological Brains Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Brains as Networks Topological Features of Brain Connectivity Node Features Circuit Features Global Network Features Benchmark Networks Geometry of Brain Connectivity Pathological Brain Connectivity Cross-References References Further Reading Connectome, Drosophila Definition Existing Neuropil-Level Connectomes Cellular Connectomes and EM Optic Lobe Cellular Connectomes Lamina Medulla Characteristics of the Drosophila Connectome The Utility of Connectome Information: Functional Studies In Progress The Future References Connectome, General Definition Detailed Description Current Status of Connectomics From Raw Data to Geometry, Connectivity, and Databases Analysis and Utilization of Connectome Data Challenges and Open Questions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Connectome, Mouse Definition Detailed Description Acquisition of the Mouse Connectome Public Data Sources Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope (KESM) Brain Atlas Allen Mouse Brain Connectivity Atlas The Mouse Connectome Project Mouse Brain Architecture Project Electron Microscopy Data Summary and Future Prospects Cross-References References Connectomics Consumer Behavior Contamination by Spikes Context-Dependent Processing in Auditory Cortex Definition Detailed Description References Contextual Integration Contextual processing Continuum Spine Model Continuum Spine Theory Continuum Theory for Active Spines Control of Aquatic and Terrestrial Gaits in Salamander Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Locomotion in Salamanders Using Numerical Models and Robots to Decode the Gait Generation Mechanisms Oscillator Models of the Salamander Locomotor Circuit Hodgkin-Huxley Models of the Salamander Oscillatory Circuits Sensory Feedback, Rich Motor Skills, and Descending Pathways References Control of Breathing, Integration of Adaptive Reflexes Definition Detailed Description Nonassociative Learning in Vagal-Mechanical Reflex and Chemoreflex Adaptation Nonassociative Learning as Neural Integrator and Differentiator Short-Term Depression of Vagally Mediated Hering-Breuer Reflex Short-Term Potentiation and Depression of Peripheral Chemoreflex Long-Term Facilitation of Vagal-Mechanical Reflex and Peripheral Chemoreflex Associative Learning in Vagal-Mechanical Reflex and Chemoreflex Adaptation Associative Learning in Central-Peripheral Chemoreceptor Interaction Associative Learning in Mechanical-Chemical Interaction Optimization Model of Exercise Hyperpnea and CO2 Breathing Optimization Model of Mechanical Load Compensation Internal Model Paradigm in Respiratory Control Hebbian Feedback Covariance Learning and Direct Internal Model Control Cross-References References Control of Locomotion and Scratching in Turtles Definition Detailed Description Why Study Locomotion and Scratching in Turtles? There Are Three Forms of Turtle Scratching The Turtle Spinal Cord Contains Central Pattern Generators for Swimming and Scratching Neurotransmitters and Ion Channels Motor Neurons During Locomotion and Scratching Spinal Interneurons Involved in Locomotion and Scratching Multifunctional and Specialized Spinal Interneurons Rhythmic Activity of Spinal Interneurons Dual Stimulation Left-Right Hind Limb Coordination References Convection-Diffusion Equation Coordinate Transformations, Role of Spinal Circuitry in Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Activity of Spinal Interneurons During Voluntary Movement Integration of Sensorimotor Information in the Primary Motor Cortex The Coordinate Frame of Motor Cortical Information Dynamic Properties of Coordinate Transformation Spinal Targets of Descending Pathways Role of Spinal Interneurons as a ``Neural Integrator´´ Modular Organization Versus Coordinate Transformation Implications for BMI Cross-References References Coordination Dynamics Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Coordination Neural Oscillators Link to Experiment Cross-References References Further Reading Correlation Analysis of Parallel Spike Trains Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Representation of the Cross-Correlogram in Terms of Coincidences Representations of the Cross-Correlogram in Terms of Firing Rate Time-Dependent Cross-Correlation Functions Pair Correlation Under Stimulus Conditions Practical Estimation of Stimulus Correlation Rate Correlation and Event Correlation Stimulus-Dependent Neural Correlation Correcting for Common Input Firing Periodicities and Firing Rates Correlation and Connectivity Effects of Spike Sorting on Pair Correlations Correlations and the Brain Cross-References References Cortical Columns and Neural Population Models Cortical Columns, Models of Definition Detailed Description Background Modeling Approaches Summary References Cortical Field Theory Cortical Function, Normative Models of Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Cortical Maps, Activity-Dependent Development Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Varieties of Cortical Map Ocular Dominance Maps Orientation Maps Direction Preference Spatial Frequency Maps Additional Maps Rats, Mice, and Squirrels Maps in Other Cortical Areas Development of Cortical Maps Sequence of Visual Cortex Map Development Vector Representation of Map Parameters The Models Linear Correlation-Based Models Competitive Hebbian Models The Elastic Net Model Models Based on Plasticity of Lateral Intracortical Connections Overview of ``Simple´´ Models of Map Development ``Realistic´´ Models of Cortical Map Development Experimental Tests of Model Predictions Final Words Cross-References References Cortical Maps, Intrinsic Processes Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Cortical Motor Prosthesis Definition Detailed Description Neural Signals Action Potential Spikes Local Field Potentials Electrocorticogram Electroencephalogram Metabolic Signals Decoding Systems Static Decoders Adaptive Decoders Nonparametric Decoders Decoder Initialization Observation-Based Initialization Unsupervised Decoder Initialization Operant Conditioning Actuator Modalities and Controlled Devices Feedback in a BMI Multisensory Feedback Sensory Substitution Bidirectional Brain-Machine Interfaces BMI Applications in Human Patients Cross-References References Cortical Representation of Speech Sounds Corticothalamic Feedback: Large-Scale Synchrony Definition Detailed Description Introduction Propagation or Large-Scale Synchrony? Thalamocortical Networks Cross-References References Further Reading Coupled Oscillations in Neural Control of Breathing Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Coupling of Local Field Potentials CPG Critical Branching Process Cross-Correlation of Local Field Potentials Cross-Correlogram Crowding Models CSD CSD Method Current Source Density (CSD) Analysis Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Physics Behind the Relation Between the CSD and LFP Methods of CSD Estimation Limitations of CSD Analysis Cross-References References Further Reading Cutaneous Mechanoreceptive Afferents: Neural Coding of Texture Definition Detailed Description Spatial and Temporal Mechanisms Multidimensionality of Texture Perception Roughness Hardness Stickiness Thermal Conductivity Conclusion References Cx3D: Cortex Simulation in 3D Definition Detailed Description Cytoplasmic Resistivity D Decision Making, Countermanding Oculomotor Models Definition Detailed Description The Countermanding Oculomotor Task Human Performance in the Countermanding Oculomotor Task Countermanding Oculomotor Performance in Disorders Non-human Primate Performance in the Countermanding Oculomotor Task Computational Models of Countermanding Oculomotor Performance Independent Horse-Race Model Countermanding LATER Model Interactive Race Model Cancellable Rise-to-Threshold Model Augmented Interactive Race with Pre-target Input Model Spiking Interactive Race with Top-Down Inhibition Control Model Other Race Models Cross-References References Further Reading Scholarpedia Wikipedia Decision Space Boundary Decision-Making Decision-Making Tasks Definition Detailed Description Decision-Making Under Uncertainty Sensory Uncertainty Outcome Uncertainty Multidimensional Decision-Making Target-Distractor Differentiation Multisensory Integration Preference-Based Decision-Making References Decision-Making, Antisaccade Models of Definition Detailed Description Basic Antisaccade Behavior Antisaccade Oculomotor Circuit Primate Neurophysiology Overview Antisaccade Performance Across Lifespan Antisaccade Performance in Disorders Types of Theoretical Models of Antisaccade Performance Accumulator Models Neural Accumulator Models Rate-Based Models Spiking Neuron Models Cross-References References Further Reading Scholarpedia Wikipedia Decision-Making, Bias Definition Detailed Description Present Bias and Time-Inconsistent Preferences Certainty Effect in Decision Making Sign/Reflection Effects in Decision Making Framing Effect in Decision Making Non-stationary Preferences: Intransitivity Sunk Cost Effect in Decision Making Prosocial Biases in Decision Making Cross-References References Decision-Making, Models Definition Detailed Description Background General Features of Discrimination Tasks or TAFC Tasks Optimal Decision Making The Models Accumulator Models The Drift-Diffusion Model The Leaky Competing Accumulator Model Neural Network Models and Attractor States Biophysical Models Extension of Models to Multiple Choices Sequential Discrimination, Context-Dependent Decisions, and Prior Information Testing Decision-Making Models Beyond Discrimination: Action Selection Cross-References References Decision-Making, Motor Planning Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Experimental Investigation Specificity of Motor Plans Planning of Eye Movements Planning Versus Executing Motor Planning Dynamics Cross-References References Decision-Making, Threshold Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Static Thresholds Response Times Multidimensional Models Dynamic Thresholds Cross-References References Decoding Field Potentials Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Overview Applications Methods of Decoding Advantages of the Approach Limitations Cross-References References Deep Brain Stimulation Deep Cerebellar Nuclei Definition Detailed Description DCN Networks The Shaping of DCN Activation Oscillations in the DCN Summary References Deep Electroencephalography Deep Learning Architectures Deep Short-Axon Cells Degeneracy Delayed Rectifier and A-Type Potassium Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Basis of Models Measurements Needed to Constrain Models Measuring Inactivation Problems Encountered in Making These Measurements Technical Heterogeneity Alternative Approaches Additional Kinetic Components Computation of Models Examples of Delayed Rectifier Models Examples of A-type Potassium Channel Models Biological Significance Acknowledgment References Delay-Induced Transient Oscillation (DITO) and Metastable Behavior Definition Detailed Description DITO and the Boundary of the Basins of Attraction: Mathematical Tools Are DITOs Always Metastable? Conclusion Cross-References References Delta Rhythms: Models and Physiology Synonyms Definition Detailed Description History Association with Brain State Function Mechanism Thalamic Generator Neocortical Generator Models Thalamic Models Neocortical Models Combined Models Cross-References References Dendritic Arithmetic Dendritic Computation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Factors That Influence Dendritic Integration Passive Properties Active Properties Dendritic Morphology Importance and Functional Implications of Dendritic Computations Cross-References References Dendritic Operations Dendritic Spines Definition Detailed Description References Dendritic Spines: Continuum Theory Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Depression Descending Control of Spinal Circuitry in Voluntary Movements Determining Network Structure from Data: Nonlinear Modeling Methods Definition Detailed Description Introduction General Concept Phase-Based Approaches Self-Sustained Oscillators Phase Synchronization The Mean Phase Coherence Multivariate Phase Synchronization Example Phase Dynamics Modeling Recurrence-Based Approaches Recurrence Analysis Multivariate Recurrence Analysis Information Theoretic Approaches Linear Approaches Application Summary References Further Reading Deterministic Reaction-Diffusion Simulators Definition Detailed Description Theory Practice Acknowledgment References Diaphragm Pacing Diffusion Equation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Reaction-Diffusion Equation Anomalous Diffusion Applications Differential Versus Stochastic Simulation Shell Approximation Stochastic Approximation Modeling Anomalous Diffusion Acknowledgment References Digital Filtering Definition Detailed Description Introduction Frequency Domain Performance Affecting the Amplitude Response Affecting the Phase Response Two Classes of Filters Edge Artifacts References Further Reading Direct Current Nerve Block (DC Block) Directed Information Flow and Causality in Neural Systems Definition Detailed Description Directed Information Directed Information in Networks Information Measure of Causality Experimental Studies References Directed Spectral Methods Definition Detailed Description Granger-Geweke Causality (GGC) Partial Directed Coherence (PDC) Directed Transfer Function (DTF) Limitations and Extensions Neurobiological Application Summary and Comparison of Measures References Directional Motion Disparity Energy Model Distributed Robustness Distributed Speech Processing Dorsal Column Stimulation Dorsal Root Stimulation Dose-Response Functions Down Under Neural Population Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description History Primary Models Robinson et al.: Thalamocortical Feedback Liley et al.: Kinetics of Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurotransmission Steyn-Ross et al.: Electrical Gap Junctions Cross-References References Drift-Diffusion Equation Drug effect Dual-Generator Concept Dynamic Attending Dynamic Causal Modelling with Neural Population Models Definition Detailed Description Modality-Dependent Population Models Modality-Dependent Observers Bayesian Inversion, Parameter Estimation, and Model Selection Applications of DCM Cross-References References Dynamic Clamp Technique Definition Detailed Description History Applications and Implementations Modern Developments References Dynamic Diseases of the Brain Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Historical Perspectives Dynamical Transitions Pathodynamics in the Human Brain Bifurcations Bistability Excitability Spontaneous Bursting Behaviors Computational Challenges The Future Cross-References References Dynamic Models Dynamical Diseases E Echo State Networks Echoic Memory ECoG EEG EEG, Neural Population Models of Efficient Population Coding Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Ideal Observer Analysis (Minimum Discrimination Error) Discrimination, Mutual Information, and Minimum Mean Square Estimation Fine Discrimination and Fisher Information Coding Efficiency and Optimal Encodings Task Dependence of Coding Efficiency Cross-References References Electrical Conditioning for Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity of Neural Circuits Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity STDP-Based Approaches for Strengthening Neural Pathways and Promoting Recovery After Injury STDP: Complexities and Challenges References Electrical Nerve Block Electrocorticogram Electrocorticogram (ECoG) Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Brain Oscillations Versus Arrhythmic Brain Activity Modeling the Arrhythmic ECoG Signals References Electroencephalogram Electron Microscopic Imaging Electron Microscopy Electronic Retinal Implants Electrophysiological Indices of Speech Processing Some Core Facts About Event-Related Brain Potentials (ERPs) What Can ERPs Tell Us About Successful Speech Comprehension? Two Components of Interest: N100 and N400 Some Exemplar ERP Investigations of Speech Comprehension References Electrophysiology Analysis, Bayesian Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Overview Example: Receptive Field Estimation Algorithmic Challenges Example Applications Cross-References References Electrotonic Length, Formulas and Estimates Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Elementary Motion Detection Embodied Cognition, Dynamic Field Theory of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Spaces Neural Fields Neural Dynamics Instabilities Neural Field Models of Embodied Cognition Cross-References References Emergence of Orientation Selectivity in the Cerebral Cortex, Modeling Definition Detailed Description Introduction The Feedforward Model of Orientation Tuning Failures of a Simple Feedforward Model Models Orientation Tuning Arising from Cortical Circuitry Models of Inhibition Sculpting Orientation-Tuned LGN Synaptic Input Models of Biophysical Properties in Cortical Neurons Models of LGN Response Properties and Orientation Bias Concluding Remarks References Endocrine Cell Function and Dysfunction Definition Detailed Description Background Models of Pancreatic Islets A Model for Glucocorticoid Pulsatility References Further Reading Engine Purr Enhancement Ensemble Density Model Entrainment Envelope-Following Response (EFR) Environmental Sound Perception: Effects of Aging and Hearing Loss Definition Detailed Description Environmental Sound Perception Effects of Aging and Hearing Loss Cross-References References Enzyme Kinetics, Modeling of Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Epidural Spinal Cord Stimulation Epidural Stimulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Analgesic Effect Induced by Epidural Stimulation Spinal Structures Activated by Epidural Stimulation Pain Control by Epidural Stimulation Neuromodulation of Locomotor Behavior by Epidural Stimulation Cross-References References Epidural Stimulation of the Spinal Cord Epilepsy, Neural Population Models of Definition Detailed Description NPMs in Partial and Generalized Epilepsies Cross-References References Epilepsy: Abnormal Ion Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Ion Channel Function Epilepsy as an Excitability Disorder Homology Models of Mutant Ion Channels Epilepsy Mutation Causing Dysfunction of Ion Channels in Neuronal and Network Models References Epilepsy: Computational Models Detailed Description Modeling of Neuronal Network Activity Neural Fields and Effects of Delays Application to Epilepsy Conclusion Acknowledgment References Further Reading Equilibrium Following Cochlear Implantation Equilibrium Neural Network Equilibrium Potential Equivalent Cylinder Model (Rall) Definition Detailed Description Motivation Rall´s model Cross-References References Equivalent Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) ERK1, 2 Estimating Information-Theoretic Quantities Definition Detailed Description Information-Theoretic Quantities The Finite Sampling Problem Direct Estimation of Information-Theoretic Quantities Asymptotic Estimates of the Limited Sampling Bias Bias Correction Methods Panzeri-Treves (PT) Quadratic Extrapolation (QE) Nemenman-Shafee-Bialek (NSB) Shuffled Information Estimator (Ish) Examples of Bias Correction Performance Information Component Analysis Techniques Taylor Series Expansion of the Mutual Information A More General Information Component Analysis Approach Maximum Entropy Approach to Information Component Analysis Binless Methods for Estimating Information Calculation of Information-Theoretic Quantities from Parametric Models Cross-References Acknowledgment References Estimation of Neuronal Firing Rate Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Histogram Method Kernel Smoothing Method Bayesian Methods Extension of the Method Toward Non-Poisson Data Application Programs References Event-Driven Artificial Cochleas Evolutionary Algorithms Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Genetic Algorithms in Practice: A Simple Binary Value Genetic Algorithm Representing a Solution Initializing the Population Evaluating a Solution Propagating Solutions Evolving Solutions Evaluating Further Generations Theoretical Analysis of Genetic Algorithms Evolutionary Algorithms as a Tool for Understanding Natural Evolution Summary Cross-References References Evolutionary Strategies/Genetic Algorithms Excitability Defect Excitability Disorder Excitability: Types I, II, and III Definition Detailed Description Historical Background Differences in Nonlinear Dynamics Differences in Threshold Mechanism Biophysical Basis Computational Consequences Summary References Excitatory and Inhibitory Networks Exponential Integrate and Fire Model Extracellular Compartment Extracellular Potentials, Forward Modeling of Definition Detailed Description Two-Step Forward Modeling Scheme Biophysical Forward-Modeling Formula Applications Limitations and Generalizations Tools/Resources Cross-References References Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinases, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description ERK Activation in Neurons Computational Models of ERK Signaling in Neurons References Extracellular Stimulation Extracellular Voltage Recordings in the Medial Superior Olive, Modeling of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Extracellular Voltage Recordings in the Auditory Brainstem Computational Models of Extracellular Voltages in the MSO The Dipole Model of MSO-Generated Extracellular Voltages Signatures of Synaptic Inhibition in Non-dipole-Like Extracellular Voltages Significance of Extracellular Voltage in the MSO Cross-References References Eye-Blink Conditioning Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Essential Role of the Cerebellum in Eye-Blink Conditioning Convergence of CS and US Sensory Pathways in the Cerebellum Cerebellar Mechanisms of Associative Learning Summary References Eyelid Conditioning F F Current F1/F2 Components of Short-Term Synaptic Enhancement Facilitation Facilitation, Biophysical Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Activity-Dependent Increase in Presynaptic Ca2+ Influx Facilitation of Ca2+ Transients Through Buffer Saturation Bound Residual Ca2+ Accumulation Free Residual Ca2+ Accumulation at a Remote Site (Two-Site Model) Calcium-Dependent Acceleration of Vesicle Mobilization Hybrid Mechanisms Other Models References Failure of Averaging Definition Detailed Description Background and Overview Examples of Failures of Averaging Conductance-Based Modeling of Neurons Failure of Averaging in Neural Coding Failure of Averaging in Detecting Discrete State Transitions Implications for Experiments References Faulty Integration FeatureMapper Feedforward Inhibition Fick´s Second Law Field Potential FieldML Definition Detailed Description Introduction Overview of Data Model Evaluators Domains Data Sources Imports FieldML Standard Library The FieldML Version 0.5 API Adoption Cross-References References Figure-Ground Segregation, Computational Neural Models of Definition Detailed Description The Importance of Figure-Ground Segregation Elementary Cues for Figure-Ground Segregation The Scope of the Present Article What Is Border-Ownership and How Is It Related to Figure-Ground Perception? Border-Ownership Is Independent from the Polarity of Contrast Across Borders Psychophysical Antecedents of Recent Computational Neuroscience of Figure-Ground Perception Brain Areas Involved in Figure-Ground Perception Temporal Dynamics of Border-Ownership Neural Response A Teardrop Model of Figure-Ground Segregation and an Edge-Integration Model Neural Responses to Texture-Defined Static Figures Motion-Based Figure-Ground Segregation Need for Feedback Among Brain Areas ``2D´´ Versus ``3D´´ Displays: Figure-Ground Segregation and Stereopsis Conclusion References Filtering Final Neurons of the Descending Auditory System Fine Temporal Structure of Synchronization of Neural Oscillations in the Basal Ganglia in Parkinson´s Disease Definition Detailed Description Synchrony of Neural Oscillations in Parkinson´s Disease Temporal Patterning of Synchronized Activity Temporal Patterns of Neural Synchrony Observed in Parkinsonian Patients Computational Modeling of the Mechanisms of the Intermittent Synchrony in Parkinsonian Basal Ganglia Intermittent Oscillations and Synchrony in Parkinson´s Disease and Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation Cross-References References Finite Element Modeling for Extracellular Stimulation Definition Detailed Description External Neuronal Stimulation Second Spatial Derivative of Ve and Current Density Are Used to Predict Regions of Spike Initiation Activating Function Criterion Stimulus Threshold Current Depends Also on Type and Densities of Ion Channels Stimulation of the Lumbar Spinal Cord with Epidural Electrodes Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Finite Element Modeling of Electrical Stimulation Using Microelectrodes Definition Detailed Description References Finite Element Models of the Spine Finite Element Models of Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References Acknowledgment References Firing Frequency First-Spike Latency Fitzhugh-Nagumo Model Definition Detailed Description Mathematical Model Nagumo´s Circuit Model Phase Plane Analysis Geometric Explanation of Spike Generation Phenomena in the Hodgkin-Huxley Model Threshold Phenomena, Small-Amplitude Spikes, and Refractoriness Excitation Block Post-inhibitory Rebound Spiking Spike Accommodation Other Forms of the FHN Model Alternative Formulations Generalized FitzHugh-Nagumo Systems Fast-Slow Approximation of Hodgkin-Huxley Dynamics FitzHugh-Nagumo Model of Spike Propagation (Traveling Waves) References Flicker-Induced Phosphenes Definition Detailed Description Experimental Background Theory References Flip-Flop Fluorescence Imaging Fly Lobula Plate Tangential Cells (LPTCs), Models of Definition Detailed Description Circuit Overview of the Lobula Plate Morphological Models of LPTCs Single-Cell LPTC Compartmental Models Dendritic Networks Performing Image Processing Operations Axonal Networks Extracting Optic Flow Features Acknowledgment References fMRI BOLD, Neural Population Models of Fokker-Planck Equation Synonyms Definition Historical Remarks The Fokker-Planck Equation for a Neuron Receiving Noisy Inputs Some Applications Stationary Firing Rates and F-I Curves Responses to Stimulation in the Presence of Noisy Inputs Self-consistent Analysis of a Network of Neurons Some Generalizations Cross-References References Forced Texture Processing Forward and Inverse Problems of MEG/EEG Definition Detailed Description MEG and EEG Forward Modeling Model of Neural Sources MEG/EEG Sensor Arrays Head Modeling Quasistatic Assumptions Simplified, Spherical Head Geometry Realistic Head Geometry MEG/EEG Source Modeling Source Localization Versus Source Imaging Beamforming Distributed Source Imaging Appraisal of MEG/EEG Source Models Conclusion References Further Reading Forward Kolmogorov Equation Forward-Generative Models of Functional Neuroimaging Data Frequency Facilitation Frequency Tuning Curves Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Neural Population Models of Functional Network Observations of Diseased Brain States Definition Detailed Description Conclusions Cross-References References Further Reading Functional Neuroscience: Cortical Control of Limb Prostheses Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Recorded Neural Activity Recording Methods Common Signal Types and Feature Extraction Action-Potentials Field Potentials Brain Regions Controlled Devices (Actuators) and Forms of Control Decoding Algorithms Commonly Used Continuous Algorithms Direct Mapping Population-Vector and Optimal-Linear Estimators Wiener Filter Kalman Filter Other Nonlinear Algorithms Commonly Used Discrete Algorithms Decoder Training Methods for Providing User Feedback References Functional Vision G G Protein Linked Receptors GABA-A Receptor Conductance Models Gamma Rhythm, Neural Population Models of the Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Type-A (GABA-A) Receptors, Kinetic Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Macroscopic Versus Microscopic Evidence What Does a GABA-A Receptor Kinetic Model Need to Explain? Cooperativity Models Stationary Microscopic Kinetic Models Nonstationary Macroscopic/Microscopic Kinetic Models Pre-activation Step Models References Gap Junctions in Small Networks Background/History Hypothesized Functions in Small Networks Theoretical Work References Further Reading Gap Junctions, Neural Population Models and Definition Detailed Description Network Effects of Neuron-to-Neuron Diffusion Modeling Gap-Junction Diffusion in a Neural Population Estimation of Gap-Junction Coupling Strength Implications of a Gap-Junction Syncytium Cross-References References Gating Current Definition Detailed Description Physical Basis Measurement Equivalent Gating Charge Applications for Computational Neuroscience Cross-References References GEneral NEural SImulation System Generalized Linear Models for Point Process Analyses of Neural Spiking Activity Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References GENESIS, the GEneral NEural SImulation System Synonyms Definition Detailed Description A Modeler´s View of GENESIS GENESIS 3 (G-3) References GHK Current Equation GHK Voltage Equation Gillespie Algorithm for Biochemical Reaction Simulation Synonyms Definition References GIRK Channels Glomerular Layer Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equations Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Physical Basis The GHK Current Equation The GHK Voltage Equation Derivation Cross-References References Granule Cells Graph Analysis Graph Theory in Neuroscience Gravity Analysis of Parallel Spike Trains Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Green's Function, Axonal H H - Current Haken-Kelso-Bunz Model HCN Channels Hyperpolarization-Activated Current Hearing Heat Equation Hebb´s Postulate of Learning Hebbian Conditioning Paradigms Hebbian Learning Definition Detailed Description Basic Formulations Preventing Unbounded Growth of the Synaptic Weight Theoretical Perspectives Neurobiological Underpinnings Applications of Hebbian Learning Cross-References References Hebbian Plasticity Heptahelical Receptors Heteroassociative Networks Hierarchical Models of the Visual System Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Feedforward Hierarchical Models Recurrent Models Learning References Further Reading High-Conductance State Higher-Order Correlation High-Frequency Nerve Block High-Frequency Stimulation High-Voltage Paraspinal Electrical Stimulation High-Voltage Percutaneous Electrical Stimulation High-Voltage-Activated Calcium Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Role of HVA Ca in Neuronal Dynamics History of Names Channel Subunits Biophysics of HVA Calcium Channels Modulation of Biophysical Properties Calcium Channel Permeability References High-Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels Hill´s Model Hill´s Model for Muscle Physiology and Biomechanics Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Biomechanical Components of Muscle Force Generation Model Description A Two-Component Biomechanical Model for Force Production Heat Released and Force-Velocity Relationship Model Simulations Force-Length Relationship Force-Velocity Relationship Length-Heat Relationship Conclusion Appendix Model Implementation Using MATLAB Preparing Inputs for the Hill Function Input-Output Relationship for Hill Model For Loop to Determine Force-Velocity Relationship Hill Function Model Parameters Initialize Arrays for Outputs Solver for Length Input into Hill Model Creates Noise for More Realistic Output References Further Reading Hippocampal Cognitive Prosthesis Hippocampal Memory Decoding Model Hippocampal Memory Prosthesis Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Applications Cross-References References Hippocampal Oscillations, Mechanisms (PING, ING, Sparse) Definition Detailed Description Hippocampal Oscillations: An Introduction Three Types of Gamma Oscillations in In Vitro Measurements Cell Types Involved in the Gamma Rhythm Interneuron Network Gamma (ING) Pyramidal Interneuron Network Gamma (PING) Sparse or Persistent Gamma (PG) Comparing ING, PING, and Sparse Gamma Gamma Rhythms and Cell Assemblies Cross-References Acknowledgment References Hippocampal Prosthesis Hippocampal Theta, Gamma, and Theta/Gamma Network Models Definition Detailed Description Building Network Models and Complications Involved Which Cell Types to Include? How to Model Individual Cells? How Is the Network Connected? How Many Cells Are Needed to Represent a Population? Gamma Models Theta Models Theta/Gamma Models Wulff et al. (2009): Fast Inhibition onto Parvalbumin-Positive (PV+) Interneurons Is Required for Theta/Gamma Coupling Gloveli et al. (2005) and Tort et al. (2007): O-LM Cell Morphology Affects Theta/Gamma Rhythms Across the Longitudinal Axis Orbn et al. (2006): The Effect of Hyperpolarization-Activated (h) Currents in Pyramidal and O-LM Interneurons on Theta/Gamma G... Models for an Intrinsic Theta Rhythm Experimental Context Related (Theta/Gamma) Models and Further Considerations Cross-References References Further Reading Hippocampome.org Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Hippocampus, Model Excitatory Cells Definition Detailed Description Introduction Why Do We Care About Hippocampal Excitatory Cells? Why Build Hippocampal Excitatory Cell Models? How Do We Model These Excitatory Cells? CA1 Pyramidal Cell Models Hoffman et al. (1997): Effects of K-A Distribution on Action Potential Generation and Excitatory Post-synaptic Potential Shape Poirazi et al. (2003): Rules of Synaptic Integration Migliore et al. (2005): Action Potential Propagation Into/from Oblique Dendrites CA3 Pyramidal Cell Models Traub et al. (1991): Firing Patterns Pinsky and Rinzel (1994): Firing Patterns in a Reduced Model DG Granule Cell Models Santhakumar et al. (2005): The Effects of Axonal Sprouting on Network Dynamics Concluding Statement Cross-References Acknowledgment References Further Reading Hippocampus, Model Inhibitory Cells Definition Detailed Description Introduction and Background Context Cellular Models Considerations Cross-References Acknowledgment References Hippocampus, Model Network Architecture Definition Detailed Description Basic Hippocampal Anatomy Anatomical Structure/Connectivity Cell Types Types of Models Biophysical Models Spiking Neuron Models Firing Rate Models Models of Disease Functional Structure References Further Reading Connectivity Cell Types Hippocampus, Theta, Gamma, and Cross-Frequency Coupling Definition Detailed Description Theta Rhythms How Are They Generated? Theta Rhythms and Behavior Gamma Rhythms How Are They Generated? Roles and Characteristics Theta-Gamma Coupling Role in Behavior How Is Coupling Produced? Conclusions Cross-References References Hodgkin-Huxley Model Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Basis of the Model The Mathematical Model Reconstruction of Nerve Behavior Reproduction of the Voltage Clamp Experiments Post-Inhibitory Rebound Refractory Period Biological Basis of the Hodgkin-Huxley Model Cross-References References Hopfield Network Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Updating Scheme Memory Capacity Hamiltonian Description Cross-References References Hubel and Wiesel Model Human Balancing Tasks: Power Laws, Intermittency, and Lévy Flights Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Tuning at the Edge of Stability: On-Off Intermittency in Human Stick Balancing A Lévy Flight in the Fingertip Virtual Stick Balancing References Human Connectome Project Definition Detailed Description Origins of the HCP Overview of the HCP ConnectomeDB and Connectome Workbench References Further Reading Human Stick Balancing Hybrid Parameter Optimization Methods Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) Hyperpolarization-Activated Cyclic Nucleotide Gated Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Currents Through HCN Channels Molecular Properties Cellular Functions Contributions to In Vivo Physiology, Behavior, and Disease References Hypokinesia Model Hypothesis Testing I Idiopathic Parkinson´s Disease Ih Illusions ImaGen Imaging Analysis, Bayesian Definition Detailed Description Brain Mapping Brain Connectivity Model Inference Cross-References References Imaging, Electron Microscopy Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Applications Brief History Types of Electron Microscopy Transmission Electron Microscopy Scanning Electron Microscopy Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy Sample Preparation Advantages Limitations Cross-References References Imaging, Specimen Preparation Definition Detailed Description Introduction Fixation Staining Processing and Embedding References Further Reading Independent Component Analysis of Images Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background and Motivation ICA Model Results on Natural Images Extensions Cross-References References Independent Component Analysis of Natural Images Information Geometry as Applied to Neural Spike Data Definition Detailed Description Correlations and Joint Firing Rates Orthogonality of Parameters Higher-Order Correlations Higher-Order Interactions and Dichotomized Gaussian Distribution Temporal Structure of Spikes Cross-References References Information Measures of Redundancy and Synergy in Neural Activity Definition Detailed Description Information Measures of Redundancy and Synergy Should We Expect Redundancy and Synergy in the Neural Code? Some Experimental Studies of Redundancy and Synergy via Information Measures Computational Issues References Information Processing in the Olfactory Bulb Definition Detailed Description On Mathematical Modeling of Information Processing References Information Transmission by Neural Populations Inner Ear Prosthesis Insect Olfaction: A Model System for Neural Circuit Modeling Definition Detailed Description Insect Olfactory Anatomy and Physiology Computational Models in Insect Olfaction Models for Feature-Replication: Origin of Temporal Patterns in PNs Models for Feature-Prediction Non-synaptic Inhibition in Olfactory Sensilla Models for Role Detection Maintaining Sparseness by Inhibitory Feedback Models that Serve Multiple Functions Fast Learning in the Antennal Lobe Summary References Integrate and Fire Models, Deterministic Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Leaky Integrate-and-Fire Model Extensions of the LIF Model Spike-Activated Currents Subthreshold Voltage-Dependent Currents Spike Initiation Dynamics Comprehensive IF Models Cross-References References External Links Intermittent Control Intermittent Control of Movement and Balance Definition Detailed Description Computational Model Explaining Experiments Identifying Intermittent Models Sway Stick Balancing Motor Noise The Neural Substrate of Intermittent Control Cross-References References Intermittent Control Strategy for Stabilizing Human Quiet Stance, A Model of the Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Summary of the Intermittent Control Model Physiological and Theoretical Background A Single Inverted Pendulum as a Model of Upright Posture Dynamics of a Non-Actively Controlled Inverted Pendulum Continuous and Intermittent Feedback Control Models The Continuous Feedback Control Model and Delay-Induced Instability The Intermittent Feedback Control Model Flexibility Versus Rigidity Cross-References References Intermittent Delay Feedback Control Intermittent Feedback control Internally Coupled Ears Internally Coupled Ears (ICE): Biophysical Consequences and Underlying Mechanisms Synonyms Definition Detailed Description ICE: Phylogeny and Appearance Performance of Internally Coupled Ears (ICE) Mathematical Analysis and Explanation Extensions Underwater Hearing and Sound Localization: The Case of Xenopus Tuning the Eardrum´s Fundamental Frequency Summary and Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Interstitial Space Interstitial Volume Intracellular Calcium Signals in Astrocytes, Computational Modeling of Definition Detailed Description Diversity of Astrocyte Ca2+ Signals Modeling Astrocyte Ca2+ Dynamics Approaches for Modeling Astrocyte Ca2+ Dynamics Deterministic Models of Ca2+ Oscillations in Astrocytes Stochastic Approaches for Modeling Intracellular Astrocyte Ca2+ Signals Conclusion Cross-References References Intracellular Resistivity Intracortical Microelectrodes for Visual Rehabilitation Intraocular Retinal Prosthesis Intraspinal Microstimulation Intraspinal Stimulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Spinal Solution to Multi-joint Movement Control and Other Problems Intraspinal Stimulation for Movement Applications Control of Bladder Function Control of Respiration Future Directions Cross-References References Intrathecal Analgesics Intrathecal Drug Delivery Intrinsic Optical Imaging Inverse Problems in Neural Population Models Definition Detailed Description Inverse Problems in NFT and Dynamic Causal Modeling Inverse Problems and Bayes´ Theory Advantages of the Approach Limitations Cross-References References Inward Rectifier Potassium Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description How to Model These Channels? Functions in the Nervous System References Ion Channel Mutation Ionic Currents Ionic Diffusion Ionotropic Receptors Dynamics, Conductance Models Definition Detailed Description Alpha Function Markov Models Summary Cross-References References Iso-Intensity Response Curves Izhikevich Model J Jansen Model Jansen-Rit Model Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Mathematical Description Full Set of Equation Dynamic Properties Applications Advantages and Limitations Cross-References References Jansen-Zetterberg Model Joint Peri Stimulus Time Histogram (JPSTH) Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References K K-ATP Channels Kernel Smoother Kilohertz-Frequency Alternating Current (KHFAC) Nerve Block Kinetic Analysis for PET/SPECT Imaging Kinetic Modeling Kinetic Models for PET/SPECT Imaging Synonyms Definition Detailed Description What Is a Kinetic Model? Radiotracer Administration Radiotracer in the Blood Radiotracer in the Tissue Compartment Models for PET/SPECT 1-Tissue 2 Compartment Model (1T2CM) 2-Tissue 3 Compartment Model (2T3CM) 3-Tissue 4 Compartment Model (3T4CM) Estimation of Model Parameters Blood Volume Component Nonlinear Least Square Fitting Selection of the Compartment Model Distribution Volume Binding Potential Graphical Plot Estimation of Arterial Input Function Simplification of the Model References Kinetic Models of Postsynaptic Currents Definition Detailed Description Introduction Two-State Kinetic Models Discussion References Further Reading (Kinetic or Continuum) Electrodiffusion Equation Kinetic Schemes Kir Channels K-Set Hierarchy L Large-Scale Large-Scale Models of the OB Large-Scale Models of the Olfactory Bulb Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Large-Scale Three-Dimensional Model of the Olfactory Bulb Technical Details Morpho-electric Properties of Mitral- and Middle-Tufted Cells Generation of Realistic Mitral- and Middle-Tufted Cell Morphologies Model of Olfactory Sensory Neuron Response Odor Inputs Glomerular Layer Summary of Model Predictions Odor Learning, Granule Cell Column Formation, and Organization in Glomerular Unit Lateral Interactions Between Glomerular Units During Odor Learning Learning-Dependent Processing of Natural Odors Two Parallel Pathways for Odor Signaling Within the Olfactory Bulb Spine Relocation in Adult-Born Granule Cell Other Large-Scale Models of the Olfactory Bulb References Large-Scale Models of the Visual System Large-Scale Neural Networks: Vision Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Spike-Rate Equations Applications to Vision Conclusion Cross-References References Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) Models Definition Detailed Description Overview of LGN Circuit Types of Mathematical Models Single Neuron Models Relay Cells (RCs) Interneurons (INs) Descriptive Models for Response to Visual Stimuli Mechanistic Network Models Interpretive Models Resources References Lateral Inhibition Law of the First Wavefront Leaky Integrate and Fire Model Learning in Feed-Forward Neural Networks Leech Local Bend: Neural Coding of Touch Location Definition Detailed Description Background The Leech Local Bend Neuronal Population Coding A Population Code for Touch Location Outlook Cross-References References Lévy Flights to Improve Balance Control LFP LFPy: Multimodal Modeling of Extracellular Neuronal Recordings in Python Definition Detailed Description Application Architecture Example Code Electrostatic Forward Models Extensions to LFPy Deployability and Documentation Installation Development and Documentation Cross-References Acknowledgment References Liley Model Linear System Kernel Linear/Nonlinear Dendritic Integration Liquid Computing Liquid State Machines Local Biopotentials Local Field Potential Local Field Potential and Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) Synonyms Definition Detailed Description DBS and Deep Electrophysiological Recordings in Humans What Are LFPs? The Oscillatory LFP Code DBS Action on the Oscillatory LFP Code STN LFPs and DBS in PD Pallidum LFPs and DBS in Dystonia What Happens if We Change Stimulation Voltage? What Happens if We Change Stimulation Frequency? LFPs and DBS Mechanisms of Action LFPs for the Future of DBS Therapy: Adaptive DBS Systems References Local Field Potential and Movement Disorders Definition Detailed Description LFP Studies in Brain Diseases Parkinson´s Disease Levodopa-Induced Dyskinesia Dystonia Essential Tremor Tics Huntington Disease Significance and Use of LFP Recordings in Movement Disorder Conclusion Acknowledgment References Local Field Potential Decoding Local Field Potential in the Visual System Definition Detailed Description Biophysical Origin Characteristics Primary Visual Cortex (V1) Visual Evoked Potential (VEP) Higher Visual Cortex Visual Evoked Potential (VEP) Visual Cortex LFP: Spatial Specificity Visual Cortex LFP Oscillations: Locking to External Stimulus Visual Cortex LFP Oscillations: Gamma Band Visual Cortex LFP Oscillations: Other Bands References Local Field Potential, Ephaptic Interactions Detailed Description Cross-References Acknowledgment References Further Reading Local Field Potential, Methods of Recording Definition Detailed Description Referencing and Filtering Recording Electrodes and Configurations Influence of Electrode Type Influence of Recording Site and Conditions References Local Field Potential, Phase Coding Definition Detailed Description Phase-of-Firing Coding in Hopfield´s Analogue Pattern Recognition Model Phase-of-Firing Encoding of Spatial Navigation Variables in the Hippocampus Phase-of-Firing Encoding of Natural Stimuli in Primary Sensory Areas Cross-References Acknowledgment References Local Field Potential, Relationship to BOLD Signal Definition Detailed Description Extracellular Medium and Mean Extracellular Field Potential (mEFP) Single-Unit Activity (SUA) Recordings Multiunit Spiking Activity (MUA) Local Field Potential (LFP) Summary of Components of mEFP Relationship of mEFP to the BOLD fMRI Signal Can We Predict Neural Activity from the fMRI Signals? Cross-References References Further Reading Local Field Potential, Relationship to Electroencephalogram (EEG) and Magnetoencephalogram (MEG) Definition Detailed Description Recordings of Different Scales Measurement Devices Equations Regulating Relationship Between Electric and Magnetic Fields: The Forward Solution Determining the Current Sources: The Inverse Problem Computational Modeling Cross-References References Local Field Potential, Relationship to Unit Activity Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Spike Correlates in High-Frequency LFP (>40 Hz) Relationship Between Low-Frequency LFP (<10 Hz) and Unit Activity Mechanisms of Spike Contribution to LFP Effects of Neuronal Correlations on LFP-Spike Relation Other Factors Influencing LFP-Unit Relation Implications for Electrophysiology References Local Field Potential, Synchrony of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Neural Basis of Local Field Potentials Local Field Potential Oscillations Oscillations Facilitate Synchrony and Connectivity Parameters for Synchrony of LFPs Examples When LFPs Synchronize Sensory Binding Sensorimotor Coupling Measuring Local Field Potentials and Their Synchrony References Further Reading Local Field Potential: Relationship to Membrane Synaptic Potentials Definition Detailed Description Quantitative Description of Vm-LFP Correlation Vm-LFP Correlation during Synchronized Cortical Activity Cortical Vm-LFP Correlation During Active Wakefulness and Sensation LFP, Spikes, and Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Inputs Cross-References References Local Field Potentials in Olfaction Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Types of Olfactory LFP Oscillations Recording Mammalian Olfactory LFPs Determining the Source of an Oscillation Evidence for Functional Relevance of Olfactory Oscillations Using the LFP to Infer Neuronal or System Properties Cross-References References Local Field Potentials: Interaction with the Extracellular Medium Definition Detailed Description Introduction The ``Standard Model´´ Microscopic Model of Frequency Filtering Mean-Field Models of Extracellular Space Conclusions References Further Reading Local Field Potentials: LFP Definition Introduction Spatial and Temporal Properties of LFPs Relation Between LFP and Neuronal Activity Power Spectra and Frequency Scaling of LFPs Modeling LFPs Reconstructing the Spectral Structure of LFPs from Unit Activity Conclusions References Further Reading Locomotor Central Pattern Generator Locomotor Pattern Generation in the Rodent Spinal Cord Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Identified Interneurons in the Mouse Spinal Locomotor CPG V0 Interneurons V1 Interneurons V2 Interneurons V3 Interneurons Hb9 Interneurons dI6 Interneurons Organization of the Segmental CPG for Locomotion in Rodents Rhythmogenesis Left-Right Hind Limb Coordination Flexor-Extensor Alternation Computational Models of the Rodent Locomotor CPG Cross-References References Long Term Depression in the Granule Cell-Purkinje Cell Synapse Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Stimuli to Trigger LTD Time Course of LTD Fast Signals Required for the Induction of LTD Mechanisms Required for Expression of LTD Mechanisms Required for Maintenance of LTD Spatial Aspects of LTD Other Signaling Mechanisms Involved in LTD Kinetic Model of LTD Postsynaptic LTD and LTP Roles of LTD Cross-References References Long Term Synaptic Depression at the Parallel Fiber-Purkinje Cell Synapse Long-Term Plasticity, Biophysical Models Definition Detailed Description Synaptic Plasticity Experimental Evidence of Long-Term Plasticity Models Models Based on Firing Rates Models Based on Spike Timing Standard Pair-Based Models Triplet Model Models Based on Spike Timing and Postsynaptic Voltage Voltage-Triplet Model Models Based on Receptor Dynamics Senn-Tsodyks-Markram Model Models Based on Calcium Shouval Model Graupner Model Models Based on CaMKII Bistable Models Bistable Biophysical Models and Spike Timing Consolidation Models Cascade Model Models of Synaptic Tagging Sources and Further Readings Acknowledgment References Low-Voltage-Activated Calcium Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Distribution of LVA Ca2+ Channels Quantification of Voltage Dependence Modeling LVA Calcium Channels Functions of LVA Calcium Channels References Further Reading Lumbar Spine Pain M Macaque Axonal Projection Matrix Macaque Brain Wiring Diagram Macrocolumn and Neural Population Models Magnetic Paravertebral Stimulation Magnetic Spinal Stimulation Mammalian Motor Nerve Fibers, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Anatomical Considerations Cable Model Membrane Dynamics Recovery Cycle Difference with Sensory Fibers Cross-References References Further Readings Manual Parameter Tuning MAPK1, 2 Markov Chains Markov Models of Ion Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Stochastic Description: Single-Channel Dynamics Stochastic Description: Single-Channel Currents Deterministic Description: Macroscopic Membrane Currents Stochastic Simulations: Exact Methods Stochastic Simulations: Approximate Methods Deterministic Simulations: Numerical Methods Independent, Multiple Subunits´ Markov Models Limitations Cross-References References Masking and Masking Release Definition Detailed Description Origins of Masking Nonsimultaneous Masking Informational Masking Speech Masking Practical Applications Masking Release Cross-References References Further Reading Master Stability Function for Globally Synchronized Systems Definition Detailed Description The General Dynamical Equations Stability of the Synchronized State Calculated Examples of MSFs Experimental Determination of MSFs Conclusions and Remarks References Matched Filters Mathematical Modeling Mathematical Models of Biological Processes MATLAB MCell Definition Detailed Description Software Model Syntax and Components Simulation Simulation Algorithms Future Developments Acknowledgment References Mean Field Model Mechanisms of Excitability Mechanotransduction, Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Tactile Sensation Classes of Models A Model of Skin Mechanics A Biophysical Model of Transduction Application Cross-References References Medial and Lateral Efferents Memory Decoding Model Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Applications Cross-References References Memristive Hardware Artificial Neural Networks Mesoscopic Anatomy and Neural Population Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cellular Composition of the Neocortex Laminar Organization of the Neocortex Modular Organization of the Neocortex Cross-References References Meta-analysis in Neuroimaging Definition Detailed Description Meta-analysis Cross-References References Metabotropic Receptors (G Protein Coupled Receptors) Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References Metabotropic Receptors Dynamics, Conductance Models Definition Detailed Description A Simple Phenomenological Model A Model Incorporating G-Protein Coupling More Elaborate Models References Methodologies for the Restoration of Bladder and Bowel Functions Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Normal Control of Bladder Function: Anatomy and Neurophysiology Disorders Affecting Bladder and Bowel Function Treatments of Bladder Dysfunction Treatments of Bowel Dysfunction Cross-References References Further Reading Methodologies for the Treatment of Pain Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Introduction Spinal Cord Stimulation Infusional Therapies Cross-References References Methods for Optimizing Stimulus Waveforms for Electroceutical Control Definition Detailed Definition Model-Dependent Approaches Model-Independent Approaches Future Directions References Metric Space Analysis of Neural Information Flow Definition Detailed Description Spike Train Metrics The Transmitted Information A Kozachenko-Leonenko Estimate References Metrical Structure Microcolumns and Neural Population Models Microglia Modeling Microphotodiode Arrays (MPDA) Micro-Wires Definition Detailed Description Stimulation of Neural Tissue Recording Use Single Wires Tetrodes Microwire Arrays References Migraines and Cortical Spreading Depression Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Clinical and Pathophysiological Background Migraine Theories Computational Models of Cortical Spreading Depression Cellular Events Caused by SD Tissue Events Caused by SD References MIIND: A Population-Level Neural Simulator Incorporating Stochastic Point Neuron Models Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Mitral Cells Mixed-Mode Oscillations in Single Neurons Definition Detailed Description Introduction The Structure of MMO Patterns Dynamic Mechanisms of Generation of MMOs Acknowledgment References Further Reading 9ML Model Repository Model Systems for Spine Pain ModelDB Definition Detailed Description Acknowledgment References Modeling Cerebellar Learning: Input Minimization Definition Detailed Description The Marr/Albus Paradigm InMin Models of Cerebellar Function References Modeling Intracellular Ionic Concentrations Modeling Intracranial Electroencephalography (iEEG) Signals Modeling Ion Concentrations Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Ion Influx Ion Removal Ion Diffusion Modeling Intracellular Calcium Dynamics Modeling Intracellular Chloride Dynamics Cross-References References Further Reading Modeling of Slow Waves in the Stomach Definition Detailed Description Essential Anatomy Slow Waves in the Stomach Models of Single ICC Models of Single SMC Models of a Multicellular Network of the GI Tract Cross-References References Modeling Synapses Definition Detailed Description Background Modeling Synaptic Currents/Conductances Excitatory AMPA and NMDA Receptor Currents Inhibitory GABA Receptor Currents Stochasticity Synaptic Depression and Facilitation Electrical Synapses: Gap Junctions Cross-References References Further Reading Modeling the Electrocorticogram Models of 3D Vision Models of End-Stopped Cells Models of Lateral Inhibition Models of Mechanoreceptive Afferents Models of Neural Control of Movement Models of Neuromotor Control Models of Ongoing Activity Models of Pattern Adaptation Models of Resting-State Activity Models of Sensory Adaptation Models of Stereopsis Modifiers MOOSE, the Multiscale Object-Oriented Simulation Environment Definition Detailed Description Introduction Architecture Numerics Scheduling Parallelism Interfaces and Interoperability Python Interface Graphical Interface Interoperability and Standards Developers and Support References Morphoelectrotonic Transform Definition Detailed Description References Further Reading Morphogenetic Algorithm Morphologically Detailed Cellular and Pool Motoneuron Models Definition Detailed Description Development of Computer Models with Realistic Morphology Utility of Morphologically Detailed MN Models Simulations of Pool Models Formed from Morphologically Detailed MN Models Cross-References Acknowledgment References Morris-Lecar Model Definition Detailed Description Phase Plane Basics Excitable Regime Onset of Repetitive Firing Bistability References Motion Energy Model Motion Parallax Motion vision Motor Control Motor Intention Motor Learning Motor Preparation Motor Set Multi-array Nerve Electrode Multi-contact Nerve Electrode Multielectrode Array Multimodal Neural Population Models Multimodal Neuroimaging, Neural Population Models for Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithms Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Applications Advantages and Disadvantages of MOEAs Related Approaches References Multi-objective Evolutionary Optimizations Multi-objective Genetic Algorithms Multiscale Brain Connectivity Definition Detailed Description Aspects of Brain Connectivity Connectivity at Multiple Scales Connectivity in Large-Scale Network Models References Further Reading Multiscale Modeling of Purkinje Cells Definition Detailed Description Passive Compartmental Models Active Dendritic Models Synaptic Plasticity Models Simplified Models References Further Reading Multistability Arising from Synaptic Dynamics Definition Detailed Description Mathematical Models of Short-Term Synaptic Depression Fine-Tuning Synaptic Strength in Feed-Forward Networks Self-Consistency in Feedback Networks General Observations Regarding Networks and Short-Term Synaptic Plasticity Acknowledgment References Multistability in Perception Dynamics Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Neural Correlates of Perception Perceptual Multistability in Different Sensory Modalities: Auditory Streaming Computational Models for Perceptual Switches Mathematical Formulation What Drives the Switches? Adaptation Versus Noise; Oscillatory Versus Winner-Take-All Models Other Models of Perceptual Bistability Centralized Mechanism of Perceptual Decision Winnerless Competition Models Models of Percept Formation Perceptual Multistability with More Than Two Interpretations References Further Reading Multistability in Seizure Dynamics Definition Detailed Description Acknowledgment References Multistability of Coupled Neuronal Oscillators Definition Detailed Description Neural Excitability Classes and PRC Types Mathematical Definition of the PRC and the STRC Notation Assumptions and Limitations of PRC Method Shape Invariance Attractive Limit Cycles Instantaneous Resetting Single Input per Cycle Phase-Locked Modes in Half-Centers Multistability in Half-Centers with Phase Resetting Curve Conclusions Appendix: Morris-Lecar Model References Multistability: Stopping Events with Single Pulses Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References Further Reading Multistable Perception Multivariate Spectral Analysis Muscle Music Processing in the Brain Definition Detailed Description Introduction Auditory Feature Extraction Acoustical Equivalency of ``Timbre´´ and ``Phoneme´´ Auditory Feature Extraction in the Auditory Cortex Echoic Memory and Gestalt Formation Analysis of Intervals When Intelligence Comes into Play: Processing Musical Syntax Formal Descriptions of Musical Syntax Neural Correlates of Music-Syntactic Processing Interactions Between Language- and Music-Syntactic Processing Processing of Phrase Boundaries Structural Reanalysis and Repair Processing Meaning in Music Intra-musical Meaning and the N5 How the Body Reacts to Music Music Perception and Memory Music and Language Cross-References References Musical Tones N n:m Phase-Locking Na+ Channels NDVis-Neuro Definition Detailed Description References Further Reading Nernst Equation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Physical Basis of the Equilibrium Potential The Nernst Equation Examples Derivation Cross-References References Nernst-Planck Equation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Derivation of the Steady-State Nernst-Planck Equation The Time-Dependent Nernst-Planck Equations Solutions of the Nernst-Planck Equations Nernst´s Diffusion Potential The Nernst Potential Planck´s Solution for the Diffusion Potential Henderson´s Solution for the Diffusion Potential Goldman´s Constant-Field Equation A Note on the Hodgkin-Huxley Model Electrodiffusion Through Ion Channels Physical Constants Cross-References References Nerve Cuff Electrode Nerve Fiber Model(s) Nerve Pain NEST NEST: The Neural Simulation Tool Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Implementation History, Development, and Applications Cross-References References Network Disorders Network Models of Contextual Effects Network Science Network Theory in Neuroscience Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Brain Anatomy and Functional Activity Brain Connectivity The Complex Network Approach Tools What Is a Complex Network Building a Brain Network Definitions and Notations Important Parts of the Network Degree and Strength Distributions Network Hubs and the Rich Club General Organizing Principles Assortativity/Disassortativity Motifs Modularity and Hierarchy Integration/Segregation Small Worlds and Fractal Networks Small-World Property Fractal Networks Solving the Integration-Segregation Trade-Off: The Role of Weak Ties Topology and Dynamics Synchronizability Mechanical Principles of Brain Organization Efficiency Robustness Modulating Network Properties Temporal Evolution Brain Diseases Future Lines of Investigation Quantitative Modeling of the Fundamental Principles of System-Level Brain Functioning Predicting the Behavior and Evolution of Brain Networks Controlling and Targeting the State of the Network Classification of Brain Networks Cross-References References Further Reading Neural Coding Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Neural Coding of Speech Sounds Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Speech Sounds Primary Auditory Cortex Coding of Speech Sounds Non-primary Auditory Cortex Coding of Speech Sounds Cross-References References Neural Control of Bladder and Bowel Functions Neural Decoding Definition Detailed Description Overview Extracellular Recordings Spike Times and Firing Rates Local Field Potentials Continuous Decoding Approaches Linear Decoding Recursive Bayesian Decoding Nonlinear Decoding Discrete Decoding Approaches Online Closed-Loop Decoding Decoder Initialization Closed-Loop Decoder Adaptation and Calibration References References Neural Development Neural Field Model, Continuum Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Physiological Motivation Standard Derivation of Model Equations Population Firing Rate Temporal Mean Synaptic Response Excitation and Inhibition Spatial Connectivity Additional Physiological Elements Finite Axonal Transmission Speed Heterogeneous Spatial Interaction Spike Frequency Adaption Synaptic Depression Examples of Neural Field Models Spatiotemporal Dynamics Global Structures Localized Structures Cross-References References Further Reading Neural Interface Neural Map Formation Neural Mass Action Synonyms Definition Basic Features of Mass Action in Neural Populations Hierarchical Neural Population Models to Describe Neural Mass Action Cross-References References Neural Mass Model Neural Oscillation Neural Population Model Synonyms Definition Detailed Description History Early Mathematical Developments Physiological and Anatomical Representations Neuronal Populations, Hierarchies, and Connectivity Neuronal Structure and Dendritic Filtering Synaptic Activity Pulse Generation Canonical Formulations Voltage Versus Activity-Based Models Solutions of Deterministic Neuronal Population Equations Stochastic Models Applications and Relationship to Physiological Measurement Spontaneous and Evoked EEG Epilepsy, Anesthesia, Sleep, and Inferential Neuroimaging Cross-References References Neural Population Models for Neural Population Models of the Alpha Rhythm Neural Processing of Speech Neural Prosthetics Neural Representation of Speech Sounds Neural Resonance Neural Simulation Tool Neuralgia neuroConstruct Definition Detailed Description Key Features Recent Work Availability References Neurodynia Neuroelectro NeuroElectro Project Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Implementation Data Provenance Participation Scientific Goals References neuroelectro.org Neurofitter Definition Detailed Description Background Method Software Implementation Applications References Neuroimaging, Neural Population Models for Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Spatial Resolution of Neuroimaging and Coherent Activity Head Geometry, Brain Connectivity, and Signal Expression Electrophysiological Signals: EEG, MEG, and VSDi Metabolic-Hemodynamic Signals: fMRI BOLD Multimodal Neuroimaging Bayesian Model Selection and Inversion Summary Cross-References References Neuroinflammation, Glia, and Cytokines: Networks of Networks Definition Detailed Description Cytokine Networks and Regulation Glia and Cellular Microenvironment Neuroinflammation Computational Modeling of Cytokine Networks, Glia, and Neuroinflammation References Neuromechanics of Balance Neuromechanics of Joint Coordination Definition Detailed Description Redundancy Is Intrinsic to Legged Locomotion Locomotor Performance Goals Provide Context for Joint Coordination Uncontrolled Manifold Framework for Testing Task Space Utilization Neural Mechanisms for Joint Coordination During Locomotion References Neuromechanics of Postural Control Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Neuromechanics of Quiet Standing Neuromechanics of Multisensory Integration During Postural Control Neuromechanical Interactions During Balance Control Neuromechanics of Multisegmental Movement Strategies for Balance Neuromechanics of Muscle Activity During Balance Control References NeuroML Definition Detailed Description History NeuroML Structure NeuroML Community Cross-References References Neuromodulation Neuromodulation for Bladder and Bowel Neuromodulation in Small Networks Definition Detailed Description Neuromodulators Affect Neural Systems at the Network Level Neuromodulation May Be Required for Network Output Extrinsic Modulatory Requirement Intrinsic Modulatory Requirement Neuromodulators Can Fine-Tune Network Output Neuromodulators Can Switch Network Modes and Circuitry Through Multiple Mechanisms Variability and Robustness of Neuromodulatory Signaling Interactions Between Neuromodulators Modulators Act Through Convergent and Divergent Chemical Signaling Pathways Nonlinear Interactions Between Modulators How Many Modulators Are Needed to Control Network Output? Implications for Modeling References Neuromorphic Cognition Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Temporal Dynamics in Neuromorphic Systems Spike-Based Learning and Plasticity Mechanisms Soft Winner-Take-All Circuits Synthesizing Cognition in Neuromorphic Architectures Discussion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Neuromorphic Cognitive Systems Neuromorphic Electronic Systems Neuromorphic Hardware, Large-Scale Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Physical Neuron Model Numerical Neuron Model System Level Cross-References References Neuromorphic Real-Time Behaving Systems Neuromorphic Sensors, Cochlea Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Filter Channel Circuits Event Data from Cochlea Applications Cross-References References Neuromorphic Sensors, Head Direction Definition Detailed Description VLSI Models Discussion: Related Work in the HD System and Related Neural Systems Cross-References References Neuromorphic Sensors, Olfaction Definition Detailed Description Chemosensor Technology Electronic Chemosensors Biohybrid Systems Neuromorphic Implementations Future Directions for Research Cross-References References Neuromorphic Sensors, Vision Definition Detailed Description Spatiotemporal Light Average Spatial Contrast Computation Temporal Contrast Computation Cross-References References Neuromorphic System Neuromorphic Technologies, Memristors Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Memristive Principle Memristive Hardware Artificial Neural Networks Cross-References References Further Reading NeuroMorpho.org Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Neuromuscular Control Systems, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Models of Neuromuscular Control Systems Have Been Used for a Variety of Applications in Science and Engineering SensoryNeuralMotor Interactions are Fundamental to Neuromuscular Control The Use of a Priori Knowledge Is Fundamental to Motor Control Models of Neuromuscular Control Feedback Control Models Motor Programs Internal Models for Predictive Control Central Pattern Generators Synergies Cross-References References NEURON Neuron Model(s) NEURON Simulation Environment Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Domain of Utility Software and Hardware Requirements Development and Project Support User Base User Support Documentation Support on Specific Topics Courses Models in NEURON Programming with NEURON GUI Tools Import3D Channel Builder CellBuilder Network Builder Linear Circuit Builder Impedance Tools Model View Variable Time Step Model Setup and Simulation Execution Parallel Simulation Execution Program Architecture CoreNEURON Numerical Methods Acknowledgment References Neuronal Activation Neuronal Avalanches Synonyms Definition Detailed Description History of Neuronal Avalanches Data Sets and Critical Exponents Methods of Neuronal Avalanche Data Analysis Open Questions and Future Research Acknowledgment References Neuronal Cascades Neuronal Model Databases Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Need for Neuronal Model Databases Brute-force Neuronal Model Databases Adoption of Neuronal Model Databases by Others Database Storage and Other Technical Details Limitations, Alternatives, and Future Directions Cross-References References Neuronal Model Hand-Tuning Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Neuronal Model Output Fitness Function Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Fitness Functions and Model Parameter Optimization Fitness Functions Continuous Activity Fitness Functions Waveform Distance Phase Plane Distance Linear Synchrony Measures Discrete Activity Fitness Functions Spike Count, Spike Time, and Interspike Interval Distances Spike Time Alignment and Interval Alignment Distances Kernel Methods Parameter-Free Methods Hybrid and Alternative Methods Fiducial-Point Distance Mutual Information Feature-Based Approaches Driving Input Current Clamp Voltage Clamp References Neuronal Model Reduction Definition Detailed Description Dimensionality Reduction in Dynamical Systems Functional Approach Morphological Reductions Reduction of Neural Networks References Further Reading Neuronal Parameter Co-regulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Biological: Correlation and Co-regulation of Ion Channels and Conductances Computational Approaches to Neuronal Parameter Co-regulation Computational: Neuronal Parameter Co-regulation via Hand Tuning Computational: Neuronal Parameter Co-regulation via Database Construction and Analysis Cross-References References Neuronal Parameter Non-uniqueness Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background: Non-uniqueness of Parameters in Non-neuronal Systems Multiple Biophysical Solutions for a Same Pattern of Neuronal Activity Random or Nonrandom Solutions? Cross-References References Neuronal Parameter Sensitivity Definition Detailed Description Theory Generalizations Calculating Sensitivities Application References Neuronal Parameter Space Exploration Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Neuron Model Hand-Tuning and Optimization Techniques Neuron Model Database Construction and Analysis Choosing a Method of Neuronal Parameter Space Exploration Cross-References References Neuronal Parameter Space Search Neuronal Parameter Space Visualization Definition Detailed Description References Neuronal Parameter-Measure Model Databases Neuronal Population Biopotentials Neuronal Population Vector Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Tuning Function Preferred Direction Applications Cross-References References Further Reading Neuronal Simulation Databases Neuron-Glial Interaction Modeling Neuron-Glial Interactions Synonyms Definition Detailed description Anatomy of Neuron-Glial Interactions Myelination of Axons by Oligodendrocytes Müller Glia in the Retina Astrocytes and Regulation of Volume Transmission Physiology of Neuron-Glial Interactions General Modeling Framework Modulation of Neural Excitability Neuron-Glial Interactions in Neural Networks Regulation of Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity Glial Cytokine Signaling Temporal and Spatial Scales of Neuron-Glial Interactions Morphology and Structural Plasticity Calcium Signaling Glutamate-Glutamine Cycle and Astrocyte-to-Neuron Lactate Shuttle Gliotransmission Ion Homeostasis Regulation of the Blood Flow Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Neuropathologies and Networks Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Types of Brain Networks Network Topologies Random Networks Scale-Free Networks Small-World Networks Modular and Hierarchical Networks Spatial Network Features Network Changes for Neuropathologies Summary Cross-References References Neuropercolation and Neural Population Models Definition Detailed Description Mathematical Description of Neuropercolation Neuropercolation for Local, Mean Field, and Mixed Neighborhoods Higher-Order Neuropercolation Models Cross-References References Neuropharmacological Modeling Alterations in Ionic Homeostasis Definition Detailed Description Single-Compartment Model The Multi-compartmental Approach Finite Element Modelling The Modelling of Pumps and Transporters References Neuropharmacological Modeling, Pharmacogenomics and Ion Channel Modulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References Neurophonic Neuroprostheses Neuroscience Information Framework (NIF) Detailed Description History of NIF Mission Overview of NIF Infrastructure and Current System Semantic Infrastructure NIF Integrated Views References Neutral Space NineML Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References Nitric Oxide Neuromodulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Modeling NO Diffusion in the Nervous System GasNets: NO-Inspired ANNs Conclusions References Nitric Oxide Volume Signaling N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) Receptors, Conductance Models Definition Detailed Description Kinetics of NMDA Receptors Computational Relevance References Further Reading Noise Attenuation Noise Cancellation Noise Enhancement of Weak Subthreshold Signals Noisy Neural Network Nomenclature of Ion Channels (IUPHAR Scheme) Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Overview of Channel Naming The IUPHAR Scheme for Voltage-Gated Ion Channel Subunits Ion Channels with a Principal Permeant Ion Nonspecific Ion Channels Chloride Channels IUPHAR Scheme for Ligand-Gated Ion Channel Subunits Cross-References References Nonclassical Receptive Fields Non-constitutive Exocytosis Non-inactivating Potassium Current/Conductances Noninvasive Brain-Computer Interfaces Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Tasks in Noninvasive BCIs Motor Imagery BCIs P300 BCIs SSEP BCIs Hybrid BCIs Feature Extraction and Translation Major Challenges and Solutions BCI Illiteracy Practical Field BCIs New Patient Groups Conclusion References Noninvasive Brain-Machine Interface Nuclear Medicine, Molecular Imaging Numerical Integration Methods Definition Detailed Description The Nature of the Problem Discretization of the Cable Equation Spatial Discretization Temporal Discretization Specific Integration Methods Explicit Euler Implicit Euler Crank-Nicholson Higher-Order Methods and Adaptive Integration Practical Considerations How to Select Δt and Δx Physiological Precision Acknowledgment References O Oculomotor Control, Models of Definition Detailed Description Models of the Saccadic System Models of the VOR Models of the OKR Models of the Smooth Pursuit System Models of Disjunctive Eye Movements (Vergence/Divergence) Cross-References References Further Reading Odor Learning Odor Processing Olfactory Computation and Adult Neurogenesis Definition Detailed Description Anatomy of the Olfactory Bulb Physiology of Adult Neurogenesis Impact of Adult Neurogenesis on Behavior Computational Modeling Conclusion References Olfactory Computation in Antennal Lobe and Mushroom Bodies Definition Detailed Description Acknowledgment References Olfactory Computation in Glomerular Microcircuits Definition Detailed Description The Olfactory Bulb High Dimensionality Glomerular Microcircuitry Summary References Further Reading Olfactory Computation in Mitral-Granule Cell Circuits Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Distance-Independent Lateral Inhibition Synchrony Gating Effects Cross-References References Olfactory Cortex Olfactory Cortical Associative Memory Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Associative Networks Olfactory Cortex as a Model for Associative Memory Example of a Model of Olfactory Cortical Associative Memory Network Architecture Model Equations Different Models of Associative Network in the OC References Olfactory Sensory Neurons to Odor Stimuli: Mathematical Modeling of the Response Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Mathematical Models for the Response of OSNs to Single Odors and Mixtures Kinetic Schemes and Assumptions Underlying Rospars et al. (2008) and Cruz and Lowe (2013) Models Rospars et al. Models Cruz and Lowe Models Marasco et al. Models The Mathematical Structure of the Odor Response Space (ORS) Cross-References References Olivocerebellar Pathway Definition Detailed Description Cerebellar Function and Information Processing The Olivocerebellar Pathway Cerebellar Organization: Olivocerebellar Zones and Microzones Spino-Olivocerebellar Relationships Encoding of Sensorimotor Information in the Olivocerebellar Pathway Input-Output Relationships of Olivo-Corticonuclear Processing Units Cross-References References Olivocochlear Bundle Olivocochlear Efferents Olshausen-Field Model Open Source Brain Definition Detailed Description References Optic Flow Fields Optic Flow Processing Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Movements in Space Local Image Shifts Quantified as Parallax Vectors Estimating Self-Motion Parameters from Noisy Optic Flow Fields Matched Filter for Optic Flow Processing Response Properties of Lobula Plate Tangential Cells Optimized Matched Filters for Optic Flow Conclusions Cross-References References Further Reading Optical Flow Optical Imaging Spectroscopy Optimal Energy Allocation in Reliable Neural Sensory Processing Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Optimal Experimental Design Optimal Stimulus Design Optogenetics Definition Detailed Description Microbial Opsins Optogenetics in Mammalian Neurons Optical Manipulation in Freely Moving Animals Optogenetics in Combination with Optical Imaging Opto-fMRI Potential Limitations References Oscillatory Network Activity Analysis Oxygen Deprivation P p42/p44 MAPK Pain Processing Pathway Models Definition Detailed Description Types of Pain Pain Theories and Predicted Microcircuitry Cross-Modal Interactions Primary Somatosensory Afferents Pain Pathways Organization of the Spinal Cord Dorsal Horn Pain Pathway Models References Paired-Pulse Facilitation Paralysis Agitans Param Parametric Spectral Analysis Definition Detailed Description Stochastic Processes Spectral Analysis of Stochastic Processes Parametric Spectral Analysis Using Autoregressive Models Parametric Versus Nonparametric Spectral Analysis References ParamTk Paraspinal Electrical Stimulation Paraspinal Magnetic and Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description General Principles of Nerve Stimulation Biophysics of Paraspinal Magnetic and Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation Paraspinal Magnetic Stimulation Paraspinal Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation Stimulated Neural Structures, Site of Excitation, and Evoked Muscle Responses Paraspinal Magnetic Stimulation High-Voltage Electrical Stimulation Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation Applications Lower Motoneuron Stimulation Functional Assessment of the Cauda Equina and the Motor Root Conduction Time Central Motor Conduction Time Intraoperative Neuromonitoring Functional Magnetic Stimulation (FMS) Corticospinal-Tract Stimulation Evaluation of Corticospinal-Tract Function Human Motor Control Studies Posterior Root Stimulation Human Motor Control Studies Neuromodulation Applications Further Applications Cross-References Acknowledgment References Paravertebral Electrical Stimulation Paravertebral Neuromagnetic Stimulation Parkinson´s Disease: Deep Brain Stimulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Parkinson´s Disease Detailed Description of Parkinson´s Syndrome Pathophysiology of PD Deep Brain Stimulation Detailed Description of Deep Brain Stimulation DBS Indications and Benefits DBS Disadvantages DBS Targets DBS Innovations DBS Outcomes DBS Mechanisms DBS Surgical Procedure DBS Electrodes References Further Reading Particle-Based Stochastic Simulators Definition Detailed Description MCell and Smoldyn E-Cell and eGFRD SpringSaLaD and ReaDDy Conclusion Cross-References References Patch Clamp Technique Definition Detailed Description Setup Single-Channel Patch Clamp Whole-Cell Patch Clamp Excised Membrane Patch Clamp Modern Developments Cross-References References Further Reading Pathological Changes in Peripheral Nerve Excitability Definition Detailed Description Nerve Injury: From Clinical Symptoms to Molecular Pathology Modeling Changes in Axonal Excitability Pros and Cons of Each Approach Conclusions References Pattern Formation in Neural Population Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Stimulus-Induced Patterns Spontaneous Patterns Initial Constant State Initial Pattern Lyapunov Functional Cross-References References Further Reading Perception, Bayesian Models of Definition Detailed Description Effect of Prior Knowledge Cue Integration Explaining Away Causal Inference Other Bayesian Models of Perception Cross-References References Perceptron Learning Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Algorithm Description Storage Capacity of Perceptrons Cross-References References Perceptual Alternations Perceptual Bistability/Tristability Perceptual Correlates Perceptual Decision-Making Definition Detailed Description Perceptual Decision Making in a Simple Organism Importance of Task Design and Behavioral Context Elementary Computational Principles in Perceptual Decision Making Discriminating Randomly Moving Dots Further Evidence of Competition Between Selective Pools of Neurons Deciding Is to Compare One Alternative Versus Another Gradual Influence of Perception on Motor Planning: Open Gate Versus Closed Gate Perceptual Decision Making Based on Tactile Stimuli Integration of Sensory Evidence and the Speed of Perceptual Decisions References Perceptual Errors Perceptual Rivalry Perceptual Switching Perceptual-Motor Dissociation Definition Perception Motor Event Detailed Description Opposite Views Arguments in Favor and Against the Dichotomy A False Dilemma? Cross-References References Percutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation Periglomerular Cells Periodic Diseases Peripheral Nerve Interface Applications, Cochlear Implants Definition Detailed Description History Modern Development Evolution of Speech Processing Children with Cochlear Implants Future Directions References Further Reading Peripheral Nerve Interface Applications, EMG/ENG Synonyms Definitions Detailed Description Background Acquisition and Presentation Analysis Methods Computational Models Cross-References References Further Reading Peripheral Nerve Interface Applications, Neuropathic Pain Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Pathomechanics of Neuropathic Pain Peripheral Nerve Stimulation for Neuropathic Pain Nerve Interfaces for Neuropathic Pain Implanted Systems References Further Reading Peripheral Nerve Interface Applications, Obesity Definition Detailed Description References Peripheral Nerve Interface Applications, Respiratory Pacing Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Stimulation Approaches Limitations and Alternatives Cross-References References Further Reading Peripheral Nerve Interface Applications, Sensory Restoration Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Peripheral Nerve Interface Applications, Sleep Apnea Definition Detailed Description Solution Implementation References Peripheral Nerve Interface Applications, Vagal Nerve Stimulation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Vagal Nerve Anatomy Implantable and External VNS Systems and Emerging Applications Implant and Dosing Procedure Therapeutic Mechanisms of VNS References Peripheral Nerve Interface, Epineural Electrode Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Stimulating Electrodes Recording Electrodes References Peripheral Nerve Interface, Intraneural Electrode Definition Detailed Description References Peripheral Nerve Interface, Regenerative Definition Detailed Description Regenerative Peripheral Interfaces (RPIs) Types of RPIs Sieve Electrode Array Microchannel Electrode Array (MCE) Regenerative Multielectrode Interface (REMI) Limitations Invasiveness Nerve Regeneration Interference References Further Reading Peripheral Nerve Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Anatomy Applications The Cable Equation The Hodgkin-Huxley Model Accounting for Myelin Extensions of the Single Axon-Model: Volume Conductors and Populations of Axons Time Considerations Simplifications and Approximations Software Packages Cross-References References Further Reading Peripheral Nerve Signal Processing, Denoising Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Differential Recording Spectral Filtering References Peripheral Nerve Signal Processing, Multipole Cuff Methods Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Electroneurogram (ENG) Nerve Cuff Electrodes Evolution of Multipole (Multi-contact) Electrodes Nerve Recording Technique: Artifact Suppression Intrafascicular Electrodes Information Content of Neural Activity Changes in ENG Activity Analysis of Mixed Signals Future Direction Cross-References References Peripheral Nerve Signal Processing, Source Localization Detailed Description Background Techniques Pathway-Level Beamforming Fascicle-Level Beamforming Adaptive Beamforming Current State of the Art References Peripheral Nerve Stimulation Technique, Nerve Block Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Characteristics of KHFAC Nerve Block Mechanisms of KHFAC Nerve Block Clinical Investigations References Peripheral Nerves, Anatomy and Physiology of Definition Detailed Description Types of Peripheral Nerves Motor Nerves Sensory Nerves Autonomic Nerves Physiology PNS Injury and Regeneration Cellular Response to Injury Wallerian Degeneration Spontaneous Axonal Regrowth Guidance Molecules Accuracy of Regeneration Remyelination Nerve Repair Limitations in PNS Regeneration References Peripheral Neural Interfaces Peripheral Vestibular Signal Processing Definition Vestibular End Organ Processing Detailed Description Sensory System Sensory Signals Signal Processing References Peripheral Vision, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Modeling Crowding Limitations of Current Models and Future Paths Cross-References References Pharmacogenomics Phase Correlation Phase Models, Noisy Definition Detailed Description Phase Reduction Statistical Properties Noise and Coupling Stochastic Synchronization Cross-References References Phase Response Curve, Measurement and Shape of General Definition Detailed Description Theoretical Analysis of the PRC Shape Phase Plane Analysis of INaP,K Model Type I and Type II PRCs Measuring the Phase Response Curve Isochrons Intrinsic Effects on PRC Shape Firing Rate of the Neuron Ion Channel Kinetics Causality Extrinsic Effects on PRC Shape Synaptic Time Constants Synaptic Reversal Potential Synaptic Delay Higher Order PRCs Conclusions Cross-References References Further Reading Phase Response Curve, Measurement of the Infinitesimal Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Phase Response Curve, Topology of Definition Detailed Description Introduction Limit Cycle Oscillations and Geometric Phase Resetting Phase Resetting Theory in Computational Neuroscience Discussion Cross-References References Phase Synchrony Phase Transitions, Neural Population Models and Definition Detailed Description Equilibrium Phase Transitions Nonequilibrium Phase Transitions Temporal Rhythms via Hopf Bifurcation Spatial Patterns via Gap-Junction-Mediated Turing Bifurcation Cross-References References Phase-Amplitude Coupling Phase-Frequency Coupling Phase-Locking Phase-Locking Methods Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Estimation of Phase Definition of Phase Difference Quantification of Phase Locking: The Phase-Locking Value and Alternative Measures References Phase-Phase Coupling Phototransduction Biophysics Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Basic Structure of Photoreceptor Cells Microvilli Are Sampling Units Basic Rules of How a Photoreceptor Samples Light Information Phototransduction Reactions: From Photon Absorption to a Bump Why Some Absorbed Photons Fail to Be Counted? How Changes in Sampling Result in Adapting Macroscopic Responses? What Governs the Rate of Information Transfer of Macroscopic Responses? What Are the Coding Benefits of Global Feedbacks? What Are the Benefits and Costs of Adaptive Stochastic Sampling? Photoreceptor Structure Defines Its Encoding Performance Biophysical Photoreceptor Model Random Photon Absorption Model Stochastic Bump Model Integration of Light-Induced Current (LIC) HH Model of Photoreceptor Plasma Membrane References Phototransduction Cascade Phototransduction Mechanisms Phrenic Nerve Pacing Physical Sectioning Microscopy Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Means of Physical Sectioning A Brief Survey of Physical Sectioning Microscopy Techniques References Physiology and Computational Principles of Muscle Force Generation Definition Detailed Description Introduction Relevant Physiology Structure of the Model Active Force Frequency Recruitment Calcium Kinetics and Crossbridge Activation (feff, Af) Sag (S) Force-Length (FL) Force-Velocity (FV) Interactions Among Length, Velocity, and Activation Length Dependency of Calcium Kinetics Length Dependency of Crossbridge Dynamics Potentiation Yield (Y) Passive Elastic Elements Parallel Elastic Element (Fpe1) Thick Filament Compression (Fpe2) Series Elastic Element (Tendon + Aponeurosis; Fse) Parameters Needed to Model Specific Muscles Optimal Fascicle Length (L0) Muscle Mass (m) Fiber Composition Characteristic Firing Rate of Muscle Fiber Type (f0.5) Tendon + Aponeurosis Length (L0T) Maximum Musculotendon Path Length (LmaxMT) Pinnation Angle References Physiology and Function of Cochlear Efferents Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Anatomy Neurochemistry MOC Fast Inhibition MOC Slow Inhibition MOC Effects in Humans The Role of Efferents in Hearing References Further Readings Physiome Repository Definition Detailed Description Revision Control Model Presentation Underlying Software Cross-References References PhysioNet Definition Detailed Description Background Activities References Piriform Cortex Pitch Perception, Models Definition Detailed Description Which Attributes of Sound Determine Its Pitch? Timing and Place Theories of Pitch Presumed Neural Coding for Pitch by Neurons in the Central Auditory System Neurocomputational Models of Pitch Perception Cross-References References Further Reading Polarization Vision Definition Detailed Description Polarized Light in Nature Concepts Deducted from Behavioral Data Detection of Polarized Light Polarized-Light Processing in the Brain of Insects Optic Lobe Anterior Optic Tubercle Central Complex Beyond the Central Complex Integration of Polarized Light and Unpolarized Light Polarized Light as Global Frame of Reference for Insect Orientation? Polarization Vision Beyond Arthropods? Cross-References References Policy Gradient Methods Polypeptide and Protein Modeling for Drug Design Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background The Underlying Principles Behind Protein and Peptide Modeling Techniques Knowledge Based Methods Potential Energy Methods Protein Structure Prediction Homology Modeling Modeling by Fold Recognition Probabilistic Modeling of Protein Interactions Molecular Docking Techniques Scoring Functions are Used to Assess the Quality of Modeled Structures and Interactions Modeling Time-Dependent Protein Dynamics Molecular Dynamics Simulation Techniques Free Energy Calculations Current Successes and Future Directions Summary References Pooling Models Population Density Model Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Ensemble of Independent Neurons LIF Neurons with Independent White Noise Sources Time-Independent Input Statistics Time-Varying Input Statistics: Linear Response and Spike-Rate Response Function LIF Neurons with More Realistic Noise Models Shot Noise Multiplicative Noise Temporally Correlated Noise More Realistic Neurons Nonlinear IF Neurons Two-Variable Models From Ensemble of Spiking Neurons to Rate Models Ensembles of Connected Neurons Mathematical Description of a Neuronal Network Standard Coupling Regime and Mean-Field Approximation: The Simplest Case of a Homogeneous Neuronal Population Steady-State Firing Rates Linear Stability Analysis and Emergence of Oscillations Networks Analyzed by the Population Density Approach Electrically Coupled Neurons Excitatory-Inhibitory Networks Neurons with Heterogeneous Properties Strong Coupling Regime Deterministic Networks and the Population Density Approach Conclusion References Population Encoding/Decoding Definition Detailed Description Probabilistic Population Encoding and Decoding Population Encoding and Neural Dynamics: (yt|t, xt) Population Decoding: p(xt|y1:t) Cross-References References Population Vector Posterior Root Stimulation Postinhibitory Rebound and Facilitation Definition Detailed Description References Post-tetanic potentiation Power-Law Distributed Patterns Pre-Botzinger Complex Rhythm Generation Definition Detailed Description Persistent Na+ Bursting Mechanism (Butera 1999 Model) The Single Cell Model The Network Model Bursting Mechanism Based on ICaN and Na/K Pumps (Rubin 2009 Model) The Single Self-Coupled Model Bursting Mechanism Based on Ca2+ Oscillations (Toporikova 2011 Model) The Single Cell Model The Network Model Bursting Mechanism Based on Combination of Persistent Na+, Na/K Pumps, and Ca2+ (Jasinski 2013 Model) The Single Cell Model The Network Model References Predictive Coding Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Preference Mapping Preparatory Set Pressure-Difference Receiver Pressure-Gradient Receiver Probabilistic Models of Cognition Propagator, Axonal Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Historical Remarks Mathematical Definition Equivalent Partial-Differential-Equation (PDE) Approach Derivation (Jirsa and Haken 1996) Expansions Applications Cross-References References Proprioception Definition Detailed Description Proprioceptors Pathway Proprioception in the Brain References Further Reading Proprioceptive Feedback to Central Pattern Generators Proprioceptor Models Definition Detailed Description Proprioception in Invertebrates Properties of Mammalian Proprioceptors Muscle Spindles Golgi Tendon Organs (GTOs) Cutaneous Receptors Joint Receptors Models of Proprioceptors Muscle Spindle Models Golgi Tendon Organ Models Cutaneous Receptor Models Joint Receptor Models General Comments: Which Models to Choose? Cross-References References Prosthetic Device Prosthetic Vision, Assessment Synonyms Definition Detailed Definition Clinical Vision Measures Functional Vision Measures Electrophysiology Methodology of Prosthetic Vision Assessments Cross-References References Further Reading Prosthetic Vision, Perceptual Effects Synonyms Definition Detailed Description General Appearance of Electrically Elicited Percepts Effects of Stimulus Parameters Performance of Visual Prosthesis Wearers Cross-References References Protein Kinase A, Models of Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Protein Kinase C, Models of Definition Detailed Description Conventional PKC: Bhalla Model Conventional PKC: Other Models Other PKC Isozymes References PSICS: The Parallel Stochastic Ion Channel Simulator Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References PSTH Pulse-Coupled Oscillators Definition Detailed Description Event Maps Event Map for Periodic Pulsatile Forcing Event Map for Two Pulse-Coupled Oscillators More Complicated Systems The Fully Synchronous State of Mirollo and Strogatz The Fully Synchronous State of Goel and Ermentrout Direct Extension of Two-Neuron Method for Synchrony Applying Pulse-Coupled Maps to Real Neural Systems Cross-References References Further Reading Pulse-Resonance Sounds Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Pulse-Resonance Sounds and Source-Filter Systems The Size Information in Pulse-Resonance Sounds The Role of Size Information in Speaker Perception Background and Research on Pulse-Resonance Sounds Background Mathematics The Auditory Representation of Acoustic Scale A Scale-Shift Covariant Auditory Image Terminology of Acoustic Scale Research on Pulse-Resonance Sounds The Robustness of Speech Perception to Variation in Sf and Ss References p-Value PyNN: A Python API for Neural Network Modelling Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Q Q Current Q10: The Effect of Temperature on Ion Channel Kinetics Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Mathematical Definition Usage Measurement and Validity Typical Values Physical Basis Cross-References References Quadratic Integrate and Fire Model Quadratization: From Conductance-Based Models to Caricature Models with Parabolic Nonlinearities Definition Introduction Models Conductance-Based Models Models of Quadratic Type Dimensionless Models of Quadratic Type Quadratization Procedure Two Examples: INap + Ih and INap + IKs Models Other Related Quadratic Model Formulations Limitations and Additional Comments Acknowledgment References Quasi-active Approximation of Nonlinear Dendritic Cables Definition Detailed Description Derivation of the Quasi-active Description of a Nonlinear Dendritic Cable Use of the Quasi-active Cable Description Impulse Response Function Frequency-Dependent Response of Quasi-active Cable Advantages and Limitations of Approach References R Radioactive Isotope Radioindicator Radioisotope Radiolabeled Molecular Imaging Probe Radiopharmaceutical Radiopharmaceuticals in Molecular Imaging Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Elements and Atoms Isotopes and Radioisotopes Radioactivity Types of Radioactive Decay Radioactive Decay Equations Units of Activity Half-Life and Average Life Time Specific Activity (SA) Radionuclide Production: Nuclear Reactions Radionuclide Generators Radiopharmaceuticals Radioactivity Versus Chemistry Radiotracer and Radiopharmaceutical Choice of Radionuclide Radionuclide: Positron (β+) Versus Gamma (γ) Emission Radiochemistry: Synthesis of Radiopharmaceuticals 11C-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals 18F-Labeled Radiopharmaceuticals Radiofluorination Nucleophilic Fluorination Reactions Electrophilic Fluorination Reactions Organic Precursors for 18F Labeling Radioiodination Labeling of Biomolecules with Radiometals Molecular Imaging Neuronal Metabolism Brain Receptors and Transporters Enzymes in the Brain Neurodegenerative Diseases (NDDs) and Aggregated Proteins Neurooncology Neuroinflammation Summary References Further Readings Radiotracer Rational Models of Cognition Receptive Field Modeling Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Kinds of Models Mathematical Approximations Mathematical Approximation for Retinal and LGN Receptive Fields Mathematical Approximation for Visual Cortical Receptive Fields Mathematical Approximation for Auditory Cortical Receptive Fields Development of Receptive Fields Organization of Receptive Fields Other Sensory Neurons References Reconstruction of Current Sources Reconstruction, Electron Microscopy Definition Detailed Description Reconstruction Approaches Reconstruction Software Packages Cross-References References Reconstruction, Techniques and Validation Definition Detailed Description Reconstruction Validation References Recording the Peripheral Nervous System Recurrent Brain-Computer Interfaces Synonyms Definition Detailed Description History System Components Theory of Operation References Recurrent Network Models, Reservoir Computing Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Liquid State Machines Echo State Networks Theory Applications Acknowledgment References Recurrent Neural Network Reduced Morphology Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Theoretical Methods Heuristic Reduction Methods Cross-References References Further Reading Reflex Regulated Exocytosis Regulator Reinforcement Learning in Cortical Networks Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References Acknowledgment References Relation to Unit Activity Relative Motion Resistivity, Axial Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Explanation of the Units Determinants of Ri Applications of Ri Cross-References References Resistivity/Conductivity of Extracellular Medium Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Introduction Frequency-Dependent Behavior Volume Conduction of Biopotentials Quasi-Static Approximation Tissue Inhomogeneities/Anisotropies Significance/Implications/Conclusion Cross-References References Respiratory Electrical Stimulation Response Planning Response Selection Retina Chip Retinal Chip Retinal Disease and Remodeling Definition Detailed Description Diseases That Cause Retinal Remodeling Remodeling Phases Mechanisms and Physiology of Remodeling Consequences References Retinal Network Models Retinal Neurophysiology Definition Detailed Description References Retinal Prosthesis Retinal Waves, Models of Definition Detailed Description Refractoriness as a Central Mechanism Activity-Dependent Refractoriness Between Local and Global Functional Connectedness Summary Cross-References References Retinocollicular Development Retinogeniculate Development Retinotopic Development, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description What Is a Retinotopic Map? Mechanisms of Map Formation Molecular Gradients Spontaneous Neuronal Activity Competition for Resources Future Directions Cross-References References Reverse Correlation Reward-Based Learning Reward-Based Learning, Model-Based and Model-Free Definition Detailed Description Theory Reinforcement Learning Model-Based RL Model-Free RL Sampling and Computational Costs Behavior Neurobiology Psychopathology References RF Modeling Rhythm Generation in Embryonic Chick Spinal Cord Definition Detailed Description A Model of the Mean Network Activity Models Based on Individual Spiking Neurons Model Achievements Cross-References References Rhythm Generation in Young Xenopus Tadpoles Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Modeling Swimming Modeling Struggling References Rhythm Perception: Pulse and Meter Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Neural Resonance Models of Pulse and Meter Discrete-Time Models Phase-Locking and Mode-Locking Discrete-Time Models of Pulse References Rhythmic Entrainment Ri (Units: Ω Cm) Robinson Model Role of Delayed Feedback in Human Balancing Definition Detailed Description Mechanical Model Stability and Stabilizability Discussion Cross-References References Role of Descending Pathways in Extrinsic to Intrinsic Coordinate Transformation S SBML Scale-Invariant Patterns Segmental Control Self-Organizing Maps SenseLab: Integration of Multidisciplinary Neuroscience Data Definition Detailed Description Acknowledgment References Sensorimotor Control of Balance Sensorimotor Control of Posture Sensory Coding, Efficiency Definition Detailed Description Neural Codes The Efficiency of Neural Codes Reconstruction Quality and Precision Mutual Information The Efficient Coding Hypothesis Consequences and Experimental Evidence Stimulus-Response Function of Single Neurons Adaptation of Stimulus-Response Functions in Single Neurons Maximization of Information Rates in Single Neurons Efficiency of Neural Populations State-Dependent Efficient Coding Outlook References Sensory Drive to Rhythmic Neuronal Networks Sensory Input to Central Pattern Generators Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Sensory Feedback Versus Sensory Input Local Sensory Feedback Sensory Gating and Phase Dependent Modulation of Sensory Feedback Context or Task-Dependent Modulation of Sensory Feedback What Drives Rhythmic Behavior In Vivo: Sensory Feedback or CPG Activity? Long Loop Sensory Feedback and Long Lasting Effects of Sensory Feedback Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop Sensorimotor Interactions Indirect and Long-Term Influences of Sensory Feedback Cross-References References Further Reading Scholarpedia Articles on Central Pattern Generators and Sensory Feedback Facebook Pages on Central Pattern Generators Wikipedia Articles on Central Pattern Generators and Feedback Sensory Modulation of Central Pattern Generators Sensory Stimulation Serial Sectioning Microscopy Serpentine Receptors Servo Control Seven-Transmembrane Domain Receptors SFC Shaking Palsy 3D Shape Perception, Models of Definition Detailed Description An Ill-posed Inverse Problem The Diversity of Image Cues Research into 3D Perception Psychology and Psychophysics Invariants and Affordance Computational Modules Volumetric Primitives Appearance Models Bayesian Models Neuroscience and Neurobiology Computer Vision Differential Equation Approaches Bayesian Approach Deep Learning Multi-image Reconstruction Recent Integrative Shape Perception Theories Summary Cross-References References Short-Term Plasticity, Biophysical Models Definition Detailed Description Stochastic Models of Short-Term Depression Arising from Neurotransmitter Depletion Deterministic Models of Short-Term Facilitation and Depression References Further Reading Short-Term Synaptic Facilitation Short-Term Synaptic Plasticity in Central Pattern Generators Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Neurobiology of Central Pattern Generators Molecular Mechanisms of Neurotransmitter Release Presynaptic Machinery Responsible for Neurotransmitter Release Pools of Neurotransmitters: Ready or Not Postsynaptic Factors Influence Short-Term Plasticity The Role of Ca2+ in Neurotransmitter Release Multiple Forms of Synaptic Plasticity Coexist at a Synapse Facilitation Depression Augmentation and Post-Tetanic Potentiation Outlook Cross-References Acknowledgment References Signaling Pathways, Modeling of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description How to Represent the Reactions in the Signaling Pathway? Limitations References Further Reading Significance Evaluation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Statistical Versus Scientific Significance Hypothesis Testing and p-Values Construction of p-Values Example 1 Choice of H0 and P Example 2 Bootstrap Approximation Example 2 Part II: Bootstrap Approximation Conditional Inference Example 2 Part III: Conditional Inference Heuristic Resampling Choice of T and the Alternative Hypothesis Multiple Hypothesis Tests Monte Carlo Approximation of p-Values Example 2 Part IV: Monte Carlo p-Values Example 3: Permutation Tests Example 4: Trial Shuffling Summary Cross-References References Silicon Cochleas Simple-to-Complex Hierarchies Simplified Conductance-Based Models Simulation Experiment Description Markup Language (SED-ML) Definition Detailed Description Overview Structure of SED-ML Model Elements Simulation Elements Task Elements DataGenerator Elements Output Elements SED-ML Development Software Support References Further Readings SK Channels (KCa2.x) Skill Acquisition in Stick Balancing Sleep, Neural Population Models of Definition Detailed Description The Sleep/Wake Switch Sleep-Regulatory Processes Neural Population Models of Sleep Recent Findings Cross-References References Further Reading Books Scholarpedia Wikipedia Slow Feature Analysis Definition Detailed Description Slowness Principle Slow Feature Analysis Applications in Computational Neuroscience References Slow Oscillation Slow Oscillations and Epilepsy: Network Models Definition Detailed Description Introduction The Cellular Bases of Spike-and-Wave Discharges in Cortex Hypersynchronized Slow Oscillations in the Thalamus Model of Spike-and-Wave Discharges in the Thalamocortical System Testing the Mechanism in Thalamic Slices Discussion Cross-References References Further Reading Slow Oscillations: Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Slow Oscillations: Physiology Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Background Origin Mechanisms of Initiation of the Up States Excitatory/Inhibitory Balance During Up States Mechanisms of Termination of the Up States Propagation Fast Rhythms During Up States References Further Reading Scholarpedia Slow Waves Slowness of Movement Model Slow-Wave Oscillation (SWO) Smoluchowski Equation Sodium Channels Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Structure and Function of Sodium Channels Patch-Clamp Recordings of Single-Channel and Macroscopic Sodium Currents Modeling Sodium Channel Conductance to Estimate Membrane Potential Changes Cross-Reference References Further Reading Software for Neuroimaging Data Analysis Definition Detailed Description Introduction Emergence Mechanisms and Taxonomy Emergence Mechanisms A Data Analysis Method Developed in a Lab The Methodological Lab Development Receptacle The Commercial Enterprise Software Evolution What´s the Difference? Taxonomy of Software Application Domain and Scope Intended Users Code Openness and Licensing Development Language The Problems with Software Proliferation: Finding the Right Software Software Testing Analyses Reproducibility Provenance Data Management and Sharing Capacity Software Installation and Interoperability Solutions Neuroimaging Informatics Tools and Resources Clearinghouse The International Neuroinformatics Coordinating Facility Open Science and Open-Source Software Development The New Challenges The Reproducibility Problem Computational Challenges Virtualization Distributed Computation Training and Collaboration Conclusion References Further Reading Somatosensory Cortex: Neural Coding of Motion Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Two Sources of Tactile Motion Information Direction Tuning Emerged in the Primary Somatosensory Cortex Neurons in Primary Somatosensory Cortex Exhibit Shape-Invariant Direction Tuning Motion Integration Is Mediated by a Terminator-Mediated Vector Average Model Processing of Motion Speed in the Primary Somatosensory Cortex Cross-References References Somatosensory Cortex: Neural Coding of Shape Definition Detailed Description Spatial Filtering Position Tolerance Temporal Dynamics Proprioception Conclusion Cross-References References Somatosensory Cortex: Organization Detailed Description History Structural Organization Functional Organization Cross-References References Somatosensory Neurons: Spike-Timing Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Precisely Timed Responses of Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors to Skin Vibrations Peripheral Responses During Object Manipulation Spike Timing in Somatosensory Cortex Spike Timing and Attention Cross-References References Somatosensory Prosthesis Detailed Description Sensory Substitution Neural Interfaces Conclusions References Sound Localization and Experience-Dependent Plasticity Definition Detailed Description Experience-Dependent Changes in Sound Localization Ability Mechanisms Underlying Changes in Perceptual Ability References Sound Localization in Mammals and Models Definition Detailed Description Historical Overview Jeffress Model Interaural Cross-Correlation Models Two-Channel ITD Models Models Utilizing Interaural Level Differences Lateralization Models Localization in the Horizontal Plane Localization Models Using Monaural Cues Three-Dimensional Localization Models Precedence Effect Models Localization in Multiple-Sound-Source Scenarios References Sound Source Identification Sound Source Separation Space (Length) Constant, Lambda, in Neuronal Signaling Definition Detailed Description References Sparse Coding of Natural Images Spatial Modeling Spatial Spectral Analysis Definition Detailed Description Data-Dependent Basis: PCA Explicit Example Summary and Conclusions References Spatial Temporal Spike Pattern Analysis Definition Examples Variations Detailed Description History Meaning of Finding Precise Patterns Statistical Significance Cross-References References Further Reading Spatiotemporal Energy Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Fundamental Example Conceptual Development Related Approaches Cross-References References Specific Intracellular (or Cytoplasmic) Resistance Spectral Interdependency Methods Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Parametric Approach Nonparametric Approach Spectral Interdependence Spectral Interdependence for Nonstationary Processes Numerical Examples Extensions of Spectral Interdependency Methods Applications in Neuroscience References Spectrotemporal Receptive Fields Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Value of the STRF Distinguishing the STRF Using the STRF STRF and Plasticity Forward and Inverse STRF Updating the STRF References Further Readings Spectrotemporal Response Fields Speech Auditory Brainstem Response (sABR) Speech Sounds Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff Definition Detailed Description SAT Results from the Accumulation of Noisy Information Speed Emphasis Increases Baseline Activity Control Over Speed and Accuracy Optimal Speed and Accuracy References Spike Contribution Spike Initiation Spike Metric Spike Rate Spike Time Response Curve Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Spike Train Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Spike Train Distance Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Notation Formal Definition Constructing Spike Train Distances Spike Train Distances Based on Embedding Cost-Based Spike Train Distances Timescale-Independent Spike Train Distances ISI-Distance and SPIKE-Distance ISI-Distance SPIKE-Distance SPIKE-Synchronization Other Timescale-Independent Measures Other Types of Spike Train Distances Applications: Analytical Methods Dimension Reduction Information-Theoretic Analysis Model Evaluation Applications to Neuroscience Computation of Spike Train Distances Cross-References Acknowledgment References Further Reading Spike Triggered Average Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Spike-Dependent Synaptic Learning Rules Spike-Field Coherence Spike-Frequency Adaptation Definition Detailed Description Mechanisms Adaptation Currents Input Adaptation Network Effects Models of Spike-Frequency Adaptation Conductance-Based Models Integrate-and-Fire Models Firing-Rate Models Signal Processing Multiple Adaptation Time Scales Noise Rhythmogenesis in Neural Networks Cross-References References Spike-Rate Neural Networks Spike-Timing Dependent Plasticity (STDP), Biophysical Models Definition Detailed Description Ca2+-Based Models of STDP Simplified Intracellular Dynamics Modelling Signalling Pathways Modelling Approaches References Spike-Timing Dependent Plasticity, Learning Rules Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Phenomenological STDP Models Gradient-Based STDP Learning Rules Cross-References References Spike-Timing Dependent Synaptic Plasticity Spike-Triggered Average Spiking Cochleas Spinal Biomechanics Spinal Control of Voluntary Movements Spinal Cord Stimulation Spinal Cord, Integrated (Non CPG) Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Historical and Methodological Perspective Basic Components Somatosensory Afferents Presynaptic Modulation Limb Dynamics Spinal Circuits Ia Monosynaptic Stretch Reflex Ia Inhibitory Interneurons Ib Inhibitory Interneurons Renshaw Inhibitory Interneurons Propriospinal Excitatory Interneurons Cutaneous Reflex Interneurons Spindle Secondary Interneurons (Group II) Flexor Reflex Afferents Commissural Interneurons Central Pattern Generators (CPG) Decision and Command Versus Coordination and Regulation Fusimotor Servo Control Reciprocal and Equilibrium Control Inverse Dynamics Models Regulator Models Conclusions References Spinal Electrical Stimulation Spinal Electromagnetic Stimulation Spinal Locomotor Network Spinal Neuromagnetic Stimulation Spinal Root Stimulation Spinal Stimulation for Parkinson Treatment Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Further Reading Spindle Oscillations: Models Definition Detailed Description Introduction Thalamic Pacemakers for Spindle Oscillations Cellular Mechanisms of Spindle Oscillations Models of Spindle Oscillations Dialogue Between the Thalamus and Cortex: Emergence of Large-Scale Synchrony Cross-References References Further Reading Spontaneous Activity, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Models of Spontaneous Activity Anatomical Connectivity Local Node Model Systems of Coupled Brain Areas Simulated BOLD Functional Connectivity Discussion and Future Directions References Spreading Depolarizations Squid Axon Model STA Stability and Homeostasis in Small Network Central Pattern Generators Synopsis Model Systems What Is Stable? Population Stability Mechanisms Individual Stability Phase Control Recovery of Function References State-Dependent Networks State-Space Models for the Analysis of Neural Spike Train and Behavioral Data Definition Detailed Description Derivation of the State-Space Point Process Filter Algorithm Extensions of the State-Space Point Process Theory Applications of the State-Space Point Process Paradigm Cross-References References Statistical Analysis of Neuroimaging Data Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Statistical Evaluation of Spatio-temporal Spike Patterns Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Introduction Retrieval of STPs STP Statistical Significance Conditional Testing Software Cross-References References Further Reading Statistical Significance STDP STEPS: STochastic Engine for Pathway Simulation Definition Detailed Description Mesoscale Reaction-Diffusion Simulation in Tetrahedral Meshes Voltage in 3D Neuronal Morphologies Parallel STEPS on High-Performance Computers References Stereo Vision, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Extracting Disparity from the Retinal Images Stereo Energy Model: Basic Unit Position and Phase Disparity Complex Cells Modifications of the Energy Model The Energy Model and Time Solving the Correspondence Problem Monocular Occlusions Perceiving Depth Structure from Disparity Cross-References References Steyn-Ross Model Stimulus Reconstruction from Cortical Responses Definition Detailed Description Background Methods Stimulus Statistics Applications References Stimulus-Specific Adaptation, Models Definition Detailed Description Measuring SSA Principal Results from SSA Studies Local History Models Global History Models Information Transmission Rarity Versus Novelty Modulation of SSA by Inhibition References Stimulus-Specific Information Definition Detailed Description Variability and Information Cross-References References Stochastic Hopfield Network Stochastic Neural Field Theory Definition Detailed Description Langevin Equation Formulation Master Equation Formulation Continuum Limit Applications Cross-References References Stochastic Resonance: Balance Control and Cochlear Implants Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References Stochastic Simulation Algorithm Stochastic Simulation Algorithm (SSA) Stochastic Simulation Method Stochastic Simulators Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Spatial Extension of Gillespie´s Stochastic Simulation Algorithm Exact Spatial (Inhomogeneous) Stochastic Simulation Methods Approximate Spatial Stochastic Simulation Methods Advantages and Challenges Cross-References References Structure-Aided Drug Design Subjective Experience Subthalamopallidal Loop and Oscillations Definition Detailed Description Activity Patterns in the Subthalamopallidal Network Microcircuitry of the Subthalamopallidal Network Origins of Rhythmic Activity in the STN-GPe Network Computational Modeling of STN-GPe Network Activity References Subthreshold Antiphasonance: Membrane Potential Antiphasonance Subthreshold Antiresonance and Antiphasonance in Single Neurons: 3D Models Synonyms Definitions Detailed Description Introduction Conductance-Based Models Linearized Conductance-Based Models Voltage Response: Impedance Amplitude and Phase Impedance and Phase Profiles for Linear Systems Analytic Expressions Antiresonance and Antiphasonance Attributes of the Impedance and Phase Profiles Mechanisms of Generation of Antiresonance and Antiphasonance Acknowledgment References Subthreshold Antiresonance: Membrane Potential (Amplitude) Antiresonance Subthreshold or Membrane Potential Antiphase Resonance Subthreshold Resonance and Phasonance in Single Neurons: 2D Models Synonyms Definitions Detailed Description Introduction Conductance-Based Models Linearized Conductance-Based Models Conductance-Based Models with Subthreshold Parabolic- and Cubic-like Nonlinearities Voltage Response: Impedance Amplitude and Phase Impedance and Phase Profiles for 2D Linear Systems Impedance and Phase Profiles: Analytic Expressions Impedance and Phase Profiles: Resonance and Phasonance Impedance and Phase Profiles: Attributes Subthreshold Resonance, Phasonance, and Intrinsic Oscillations Resonant and Amplifying Currents and Gating Variables Mechanisms of Generation of Subthreshold Resonance and Phasonance Nonlinear Resonance and Phasonance in Models with Subthreshold Parabolic- and Cubic-like Nonlinearities Supra-Linear Amplification of the Voltage Response in Nonlinear Models with Parabolic-like Nonlinearities Sublinear Amplification of the Voltage Response in Nonlinear Models with Cubic-like Nonlinearities Cross-References Acknowledgment References Summary of Information-Theoretic Quantities Definition Detailed Description Information Theoretic Quantities Entropy as a Measure of Uncertainty Mutual Information Other Information Theoretic Quantities Multi-information Conditional Mutual Information Entropy and Information Rates Information Theoretic Quantities for Continuous Variables Cross-References Acknowledgment References Surrogate Data for Evaluation of Spike Correlation Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Sweeping the Parameter Space of Neuron Models Swimming and Walking Modes of the Salamander Synapse-Astrocyte Bidirectional Signaling Synaptic Connectivity in Neural Population Models Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Synaptic Footprint in Neural Population Models SYNOD Synthetic Neuronal Circuits/Networks Definition Detailed Description Reconstructed and Synthetic Neurons Simplified Synthetic Networks Synthetic Networks with Morphologically Detailed Cells Large-Scale Simulations of Synthetic Networks Conclusions Cross-References References Synthetic Neuronal Morphology Synonyms Definition History of Synthesizing Neuronal Morphologies Detailed Description Context-Independent Algorithms Sampling Algorithm Growth Algorithm Context-Dependent Algorithms Interactions Through Competition over Resources Growth in the Midst of Attracters and Repellents Outlook Cross-References References Systems Biology Systems Biology Markup Language (SBML) Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Systems with Two or More Phase-Spaces T Tactile Motion Tactile Motion Integration Tactile Sensing in Insects Definition Detailed Description Passive and Active Tactile Sensing Behaviors Sensors Involved in Tactile Localization and Movement Control Kinematics of Antennal Movement Tactually Mediated Course Control During Running Cross-References References Target Selection vs. Response Selection Definition Detailed Description Target Selection Response Selection References Temperature Coefficient Temporal Coding Temporal Difference (TD) Learning Temporal Recurrent Neural Networks Tempotron Learning Definition Detailed Description Architecture and Task Learning Rule Implementations Applications Context References The Virtual Brain (TVB): Simulation Environment for Large-Scale Brain Networks Definition Detailed Description Application Packages Architecture of tvb-Library Architecture of tvb-Framework Example Code History Cross-References References Thermodynamic Models of Ion Channels Definition Detailed Description Introduction Thermodynamic Models Applications Applications to Hodgkin-Huxley Models Applications to Markov Models References Further Reading Theta Neuron Model Definition Detailed Description Stochastic Theta-Neuron Adaptive Theta-Neuron Some Properties, Dynamics, and Facts Who Has Used the Theta-Neuron (Some Examples) Code Sources XPPAUT Script Acknowledgment References Theta-Gamma Cross-Frequency Analyses (Hippocampus) Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Filtering and Feature Extraction CFC Metrics Phase-Amplitude Coupling (PAC) Measures Based on the Maximal and Minimal Values of the Amplitude Distribution Modulation Index (MI) Mean Vector Length (MVL) Phase-locking Value (PLV) Envelope-Signal Correlation (ESC) General Linear Model (GLM) Envelope-Signal Coherence Power Spectral Density (PSD) of the Amplitude Envelope Mutual Information Comodulation Maps Phase-Phase Coupling (PPC) Mean Radial Distance (Rn:m) Shannon Entropy-Based Index Conditional Probability-Based Index Pairwise Phase-Consistency Mutual Information Amplitude-Amplitude Coupling (AAC) Correlation Between Amplitude or Power Values Phase-Locking of Amplitude Envelopes Mutual Information Phase-Frequency Coupling (PFC), Amplitude-Frequency Coupling (AFC), and Frequency-Frequency Coupling (FFC) Sources of Biases and Spurious Coupling Statistical Assessment On the Choice of the CFC Metric Novel CFC Metrics Cross-References References Time Constant, Tau, in Neuronal Signaling Definition Detailed Description References Time Histogram Time-Delayed Neural Networks: Stability and Oscillations Definition Detailed Description Biological Background Mathematical Background and Tools for Analysis Creation, Death, and Global Continuation of Oscillations Multistability Time Delay and Network Symmetry Other Effects of Time Delay Summary and Implications References Time-Dependent Modeling Time-Frequency Analysis of Analog Neural Signals Definition Detailed Description Why Spectral Analysis? Spectral Analysis for Stationary Signals Time-Frequency Analysis for Nonstationary Signals Data and Experiment Requirements How to Implement Spectral and Time-Frequency Analysis Methods Interpreting Time-Frequency Results Cross-References References Timulus Locking Tinnitus, Models Definition Detailed Description References Further Reading Tissue Conductivity Tissue Impedance Tissue Loading and Pathology Tissue Resistivity 7TM Receptors Topographic Independent Component Analysis Definition Detailed Description Limitations of ICA on Images Topographic Extension of ICA Results on Natural Images Cross-References References Topographic Map Formation Topographic Maps Topographica Synonyms Definition Detailed Description General-Purpose Building Blocks Simulations in Topographica Obtaining Topographica and Related Packages Cross-References References Further Reading Topographica Neural Map Simulator Transcriptional Control Dysfunction, Modeling Definition Detailed Description References Transcutaneous Posterior Root Stimulation Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation Transcutaneous Spinal Stimulation Transfer Function, Electrocortical Definition Detailed Description Transfer Function of a Template Model The Template Model Equilibrium State of the Model Linear Stability of the System Transfer Function of the Linearized System Comparison of Numerical and Analytical Solutions Cross-References References Transient Potassium Currents Transspinal Electrical Stimulation Transspinal stimulation Treatment of Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction TREES Toolbox: Code for Neuronal Branching Definition Detailed Description Reconstructing Dendrites and Axons Generation of Synthetic Circuits Brief Overview of the TREES Toolbox Functions Availability and Links Cross-References and Compatibility Cross-References Acknowledgment References Trial-and-Error Learning Tripartite Synapse (Neuron-Astrocyte Interactions), Conductance Models Definition Detailed Description Neuron to Astrocyte Communication Astrocyte to Neuron Communication Limitation of Synaptic Glutamate Availability Gliotransmission Release of Glial Neurotransmitter Activation of NMDA-R Gliotransmitter-Induced Presynaptic mGluR Activation Activation of Adenosine A1 Receptors Astrocytic Modulation of Presynaptic Calcium-Dependent NT Release Conclusion References T-Type Calcium Channel Tufted Cells Turing-Hopf Bifurcation Two-Dimensional Optical Imaging Spectroscopy Two-Level Model of Mammalian Locomotor CPG Definition Detailed Description Motivation for the Proposed Two-Level Organization of the Locomotor CPG Model Description Model Structure Modeling Single Motoneurons and Interneurons Modeling Neural Populations Model Performance Generation of Alternating Flexor-Extensor Activity in the Model Comparison of the Experimental and Modeling Results Modeling Deletions Modeling Afferent Stimulations Effects of Extensor Afferent Stimulation Effects of Flexor Afferent Stimulation Conclusion References U Ultralow Vision Assessment Unitary Event Analysis Definition Detailed Description Cross-References References Further Reading Up and Down State Models Up and Down States V Vagus Nerve Stimulation Velocity Vector Fields Ventral Stream Vertebrate Olfactory Bulb Computation Vestibular Adaptation and Compensation Definition Detailed Description Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex (VOR) Vestibular Adaptation Vestibular Compensation Vestibular Nucleus (VN) Activity Cellular Mechanisms Underlying Plasticity and Self-Repair Cross-References References Vestibular Function After Cochlear Implantation Synonyms Definition Detailed Description References Vestibular Otoliths, Response to Vibration and Sound Definition Detailed Description Introduction The Stimulus Projections Neural Evidence Practical Application Clinical Significance of These Results Summary Cross-References References Vestibular Prosthesis, Interface Definition Detailed Description Normal Vestibular Function Input of Prosthesis: Interface Between Head Movement and Prosthesis Input Prosthesis Processing: Interface Between Input Signal and Output Signals Through Microcontroller/Processor Prosthesis Output: Interface Between Electrode Stimulation and Afferent Vestibular Nerve Cross-References References Vestibular System: Introduction Definition Detailed Description References Vestibular, Canal Testing: The Head Impulse Test Definition How the Head Impulse Test Works Recording the Head Impulse Test Video-Oculography System Data Analysis Individual Semicircular Canal Function Angular VOR Gain VOR Direction VOR Latency Refixation Saccade Head Impulse Response in Normals and After Total Unilateral Loss Loss of Semicircular Canal Function in Vestibular Neuritis Other Assessments of Semicircular Canal Function Acknowledgment References Vestibular, Eye Movement Testing Detailed Description Why Measure Eye Movements to Test the Vestibular System of the Inner Ear? How Does vHIT Work? Safety Slippage The Video Camera Acquisition and Geometry Calibration Practical: The Video Head Impulse Test Testing the Vertical Semicircular Canals VOR Gain Repeatability Historical Note Central Problems References Vestibular, Rehabilitation Definition Detailed Description Semicircular Canals Abnormal SCC Function and Abnormal Gait Abnormal SCC Function and Abnormal Dynamic Visual Acuity Role of Vision and Head Motion in Recovery from SCC Deficit VOR Adaptation Exercises Conclusion References Virtual Neuron Generation Virtual Stick Balancing Vision Prosthesis Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Commercial Design Conclusion References Visual Aftereffects, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Aftereffect Mechanisms Fatigue Versus Synaptic Inhibition High-Level and Hierarchical Aftereffects Functional Role of Aftereffects Cross-References References Visual Cortical Implants Visual Function Visual Hallucinations and Migraine Auras Definition Detailed Description Elementary Visual Hallucinations Klüver Form Constants Complex Hallucinations Modeling the Neocortex Pattern Formation in Neural Networks A Theory of Type I and II Form Constants A Modified Retino-Cortical Map Extending the Ermentrout-Cowan Model From the Euclidean Plane to the Euclidean Lattice Further Extensions of the Model Spatial Frequency Tuning Intrinsic Fluctuations Migraine Auras Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Visual Illusions Visual Illusions, Models of Synonyms Definition Detailed Description What Are Visual Illusions? Perceptual Hypothesis Approach Empirical Model Bayesian Models Channel Models Edge-Bar Feature Models Gestalt Models Layer Decomposition Approach Conclusion Cross-References References Further Reading Visual Motion Detection in Drosophila Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Reichardt Model of Elementary Motion Detection General Architecture of the Fly Optic Lobe Reichardt-Type Motion Computation in the Optic Lobe Neural Implementation of the Reichardt Detector Input Elements General Layout Output Elements Conclusion and Outlook References Further Reading Visual Neuroprosthesis Visual Processing in Free Flight Definition Detailed Description Geometry of the Retinal Motion Patterns Induced by Self-Motion and Object Motion Constraints Imposed on the Visual Input During Free Flight Processing of Visual Motion Information Optic Flow as Information Source for Flight Control Estimation of Self-Motion in the Context of Attitude Control and Course Stabilization Optic Flow as a Source of Spatial Information About the Environment Visual Motion as a Source for Information About Other Moving Objects Constraints Imposed on Visual Information Processing by a Timescale of Natural Behavior Conclusions References Visual Prosthesis Visual Prosthesis, Cortical Devices Synonyms Definition Detailed Description The Case for a Cortical Visual Neuroprosthesis Selection of Suitable Subjects for a Cortical Visual Prosthesis Advantages of the Approach Limitations Challenges and Future Perspectives Cross-References References Visual Prosthesis, Epiretinal Devices Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Commercial Design Conclusion References Visual Prosthesis, Optic Nerve Approaches Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Hardware Structure of the C-Sight Prosthesis System In vivo Electrophysiological Study on Electrode-Neural Tissue Interface Psychophysical Study Using Simulated Phosphenes Optic Nerve Exposure Surgery for Visual Prosthesis Implantation Cross-References References Visual Prosthesis, Optoelectronic Devices Definition Detailed Description References Visual Prosthesis, Optogenetic Approaches Synonyms Definition Detailed Description History Optogenetic Retinal Prosthesis Perspectives References Visual Prosthesis, Subretinal Devices Synonyms Definition Detailed Decription The Various Subretinal Implant Developments Limitations Summary Cross-References References Visual Prosthesis, Suprachoroidal and Trans-retinal Devices Detailed Description References Visual Rivalry Visual Sensations of Visual Prostheses Voltage Clamp Technique Definition Detailed Description History Implementation Details Single-Electrode Voltage Clamp Patch Clamp Discontinuous Single-Electrode Voltage Clamp Current Isolation Data Analysis and Modern Developments Cross-References References Voltage Sensitive Dye (VSD) Imaging, Neural Population Models of Voltage Sensitive Dye Imaging, Intrinsic Optical Signals Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Voltage-Sensitive Dyes Voltage-Sensitive Dye Imaging Limitations of VSDI Intrinsic Optical Imaging Single-Wavelength IOI Multiwavelength IOI Limitations of IOI References Voltage-Gated Na+ Channels Volume Conductor Model Voluntary Behavior W Wavelet Analysis Definition Detailed Description Continuous and Discrete Wavelet Transforms Comparisons with Fourier Analysis Applications in the Analysis of Neural Data References Weak Coupling Theory Detailed Description Model Neuronal Networks and Phase Models Derivation of Phase Models The Phase of Oscillators The Infinitesimal Phase Response Curve Phase Models for Weakly Forced Neurons Phase Model for Networks of Coupled Neurons Example: Phase Model for a Pair of Morris-Lecar Neurons Coupled by Reciprocal Inhibition Appendix: Computing the iPRC Using the Adjoint Method References Wilson-Cowan Equations Wilson-Cowan Model Definition Detailed Description Space-Clamped Model Spatially Structured Model Applications and Extensions Cross-References References Wireless Microstimulation Wireless Microstimulators Synonyms Definition Detailed Description Active and Passive Microstimulators Energy Transfer Battery Storage RF Electromagnetics Advantages Disadvantages Current State of the Art Optical Advantages Disadvantages Current State of the Art Stimulation Depth Acoustic Advantages Disadvantages Current State of the Art Stimulation Depth Concerns and Limitations of Wireless Microstimulators Tissue Heating Material Safety Channel Selection Bipolar Versus Monopolar Device Size Device Geometry and Contact Placement Contact Material Voltage Compliance Representative Examples RF (Inductive Coupling) Optical (NIR Coupling) Acoustical (Ultrasonic Coupling) Microwave Coupling Cross-References References Wireless Stimulators Wiring Principles, Optimization Definition Detailed Description Spatial Wiring Constraints Efficient Signal Processing Complexity and Robustness Combination of Multiple Wiring Constraints Summary Cross-References References Working Memory, Models of Definition Detailed Description References
