Encyclopedia of Communication and Information, Volume I-III

Volume I......Page 1
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
List of Articles......Page 10
List of Contributors......Page 19
Teaching and Advising......Page 28
Providing Public Service......Page 29
Viewing and Achievement......Page 30
Interpretation......Page 33
Bibliography......Page 34
Absence of Evidence......Page 35
Absence of Public License......Page 36
ADVERTISING EFFECTS......Page 37
The Functions of Advertising......Page 38
How Advertising Works......Page 39
What Advertising Does Not Do......Page 42
ALCOHOL ABUSE AND COLLEGE STUDENTS......Page 43
Television Depiction of Alcohol Use......Page 45
Advertisements and Alcohol......Page 46
Bibliography......Page 47
Development of the Alphabet......Page 48
The Origin of Print Culture......Page 49
Alphabets Versus Other Writing Systems......Page 50
Modern Alphabets......Page 51
ANIMAL COMMUNICATION......Page 52
Functions of Animal Communication......Page 53
ANTIVIOLENCE INTERVENTIONS......Page 56
Bibliography......Page 58
APPREHENSION AND COMMUNICATION......Page 59
Communication Apprehension as a Trait......Page 60
Communication Apprehension in Generalized Contexts......Page 61
Communication Apprehension with a Given Individual or Group......Page 62
Causes of Communication Apprehension......Page 63
Effects of Communication Apprehension......Page 65
Perceptions about Quiet People......Page 66
Bibliography......Page 67
Importance of Archival Materials and Archival Institutions......Page 68
Records Management and Archives......Page 69
Archival Management......Page 71
Bibliography......Page 74
ARCHIVISTS......Page 75
Bibliography......Page 77
ARMSTRONG, EDWIN HOWARD (1890–1954)......Page 78
Excitation Transfer......Page 80
Mood Management......Page 81
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE......Page 82
History......Page 83
Fundamental System Issues......Page 84
Applications......Page 85
Theoretical Approaches......Page 87
Components of Attraction......Page 88
Parasocial Attachment......Page 89
Audience Characteristics that Affect Parasocial Attachment......Page 90
Long-Term Consequences of Parasocial Attachment......Page 91
The Famous “Nielsen Ratings”......Page 92
On the Job as Audience Researcher......Page 93
AUTOMATION......Page 94
BAKER, AUGUSTA BRAXTON (1911–1998)......Page 95
Bibliography......Page 96
BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM (1847–1922)......Page 97
Bibiliography......Page 98
BENNETT, JAMES GORDON (1795–1872)......Page 99
Reference Bibliography......Page 101
Bibliography......Page 102
BLY, NELLIE (1864–1922)......Page 103
Media Effects on Body Image......Page 105
Entities Involved in Broadcast Regulation......Page 107
Historical Development of Broadcast Regulation......Page 108
Bibliography......Page 111
The National Association of Broadcasters Codes of Practices......Page 112
Bibliography......Page 113
BUSH, VANNEVAR (1890–1974)......Page 114
Bibliography......Page 115
Industry Organization......Page 116
Industry Evolution......Page 118
Issues Facing the Cable Industry......Page 119
CABLE TELEVISION, CAREERS IN......Page 120
Early Development of Cable Television......Page 122
The Growth of Cable Television......Page 123
Expanding Cable Channels and Programming......Page 124
Bibliography......Page 126
Programming Tiers......Page 127
The Windowing Concept......Page 128
Programming Through the Years......Page 129
Cable Programming and the Future......Page 130
Beginnings of Cable Television......Page 131
The History of Cable Regulation......Page 132
Cable Franchises......Page 134
Bibliography......Page 135
The Headend......Page 136
The Wired System......Page 137
Set-Top Boxes......Page 138
Bibliography......Page 139
CARNEGIE, ANDREW (1835–1919)......Page 140
Recording Data about Information Items......Page 142
Cataloging Rules and Codes......Page 143
Knowledge Organization Systems......Page 144
Producing Files in a Standardized Format......Page 146
CATHARSIS THEORY AND MEDIA EFFECTS......Page 147
CHAPLIN, CHARLIE (1889–1977)......Page 149
Making Sure Technology Works for People......Page 151
A “Big Picture” Job......Page 152
Children’s Comprehension of Television Advertising......Page 153
Effects of Television Advertising on Children......Page 155
Bibliography......Page 156
Looking at Television......Page 157
Listening to Television......Page 159
Bibliography......Page 160
CHILDREN’S COMPREHENSION OF TELEVISION......Page 161
Factors Affecting Comprehension......Page 162
Bibliography......Page 163
Stimulation Hypothesis......Page 164
Reduction Hypotheses......Page 165
Conclusion......Page 167
Early Childhood......Page 168
Middle Childhood......Page 170
COMMUNICATIONS ACT OF 1934......Page 172
Design of the Act......Page 173
Organization of the Act......Page 174
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Act......Page 175
Legislative Development......Page 176
Unconstitutionality of the Communications Decency Act......Page 177
The Child Online Protection Act......Page 178
The Roots of the Field......Page 180
Growth and Segmentation......Page 181
Bibliography......Page 182
The Seattle Community Network......Page 183
History......Page 184
Related Efforts......Page 185
COMPUTER LITERACY......Page 186
Bibliography......Page 189
Operating Systems and Applications......Page 190
Programming Languages......Page 192
Influence of Software on Computer Markets......Page 193
Bibliography......Page 194
Software Production Feature......Page 195
Multimedia Teaching Methods......Page 196
COMPUTING......Page 197
Computers and the Media......Page 198
Research Databases......Page 199
The History of Computers......Page 200
Digital Information......Page 201
Computing and Knowledge......Page 202
The Internet and the Future......Page 203
Bibliography......Page 205
CONSERVATORS......Page 206
Origins of Consumer Culture......Page 208
The Role of the Media in Consumer Culture......Page 209
The Media in Contemporary Consumer Culture......Page 211
Bibliography......Page 212
CONSUMER ELECTRONICS......Page 213
The Modern Marketplace......Page 214
Trends......Page 216
Origins of Copyright......Page 218
International Copyright......Page 219
Copyright and Technological Change......Page 220
CREATIVITY......Page 221
CULTIVATION THEORY AND MEDIA EFFECTS......Page 222
Bibliography......Page 223
CULTURAL STUDIES......Page 224
Administrative Versus Critical Theory......Page 225
Hegemony and Ideology......Page 227
Media Texts and Active Audiences......Page 228
Culture, Society, and Postmodernism......Page 229
Bibliography......Page 230
CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION......Page 231
Characteristics of Culture......Page 232
The Role of Technology and Media......Page 233
CULTURE INDUSTRIES, MEDIA AS......Page 234
The Frankfurt School’s Critique of the Culture Industry......Page 235
Alternative Perspectives......Page 237
Developing Perspectives on the Culture Industries......Page 238
Observational Learning of Behaviors and Scripts......Page 241
Cognitive Cueing and Priming......Page 242
CURATORS......Page 243
Bibliography......Page 245
Content and Value Adding......Page 246
Market Analysis, Pricing, and Marketing......Page 247
Bibliography......Page 248
Definitions......Page 249
Access Services......Page 250
Types of Databases......Page 251
Production and Distribution......Page 252
DEMOCRACY AND THE MEDIA......Page 254
Moral Obligations of Media Professionals......Page 255
Social-Scientific Theories of the Media......Page 258
Conclusion......Page 259
Bibliography......Page 260
How the Viewing Habit Is Formed......Page 261
Video Games, Computer Games, and the Internet......Page 263
Dependence on Pornography......Page 265
DESENSITIZATION AND MEDIA EFFECTS......Page 266
DEWEY, JOHN (1859–1942)......Page 268
DEWEY, MELVIL (1851–1931)......Page 270
Bibliography......Page 272
Diffusion Processes......Page 273
Innovation Attributes......Page 275
Communication Channels......Page 276
Bibliography......Page 277
Binary Systems......Page 278
Digital Video and Audio......Page 279
Errors......Page 280
DIGITAL MEDIA SYSTEMS......Page 282
Home Video and Audio......Page 283
Digital Radio......Page 284
Digital Publishing......Page 285
Bibliography......Page 286
DISNEY, WALT (1901–1966)......Page 287
DURKHEIM, ÉMILE (1858–1917)......Page 289
DYNAMICS OF GROUP COMMUNICATION......Page 291
Development of the Field......Page 292
What Is “The Information Economy”?......Page 293
The Information Production Chain......Page 294
Creating Information Goods and Services......Page 295
The Limits to Information as a Commodity......Page 296
Bibliography......Page 297
EDISON, THOMAS ALVA (1847–1931)......Page 298
Types of Editors......Page 300
Educational Television Programming......Page 302
Instructional Programming......Page 303
EFFECTS......Page 304
What Do Older Adults Watch?......Page 305
Portrayals of the Elderly on Television......Page 306
Effects of Age Depictions on Older Viewers......Page 307
Bibliography......Page 308
Institutional Contexts and Effects......Page 309
Individual Contexts and Effects......Page 312
Political Advertising and Media Effects......Page 313
Bibliography......Page 314
The Emergence of Electronic Commerce......Page 315
Measuring Electronic Commerce......Page 317
Effects on the Business Enterprise......Page 318
Bibliography......Page 320
The Main Areas of Concern about Information......Page 321
New Technologies......Page 322
Models for Decision Making......Page 323
EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATION......Page 324
Bibliography......Page 325
The Changing Family......Page 326
Family Use of Television......Page 327
Portrayals of Families on Television......Page 328
Bibliography......Page 329
FARNSWORTH, PHILO TAYLOR (1906–1971)......Page 330
Fright Reactions to Individual Programs and Movies......Page 332
Age Differences in Fright Responses......Page 333
Developmental Differences in the Effectiveness of Coping Strategies......Page 335
Gender Differences......Page 336
Bibliography......Page 337
Powers and Procedures of the Commission......Page 338
Organization of the Commission......Page 339
FEMINIST SCHOLARSHIP AND COMMUNICATION......Page 341
Language......Page 342
Voice......Page 343
Bibliography......Page 344
A New Industry......Page 345
The Studio Years......Page 346
The Television Years......Page 347
The Media and Entertainment Age......Page 348
FILM INDUSTRY, CAREERS IN......Page 350
Early Photography......Page 352
Film Inventions......Page 353
Film Art Emerges......Page 354
The Studio System......Page 356
Narrative Filmmaking......Page 357
Documentary Filmmaking......Page 360
Experimental Filmmaking......Page 361
Format and Film Stock......Page 362
Lighting......Page 363
Editing and Visual Effects......Page 364
Bibliography......Page 366
Early Prior Restraint......Page 367
Theories of Free Speech......Page 368
Tests for Possible Violations of the First Amendment......Page 369
Restrictions on Electronic Media......Page 370
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706–1790)......Page 371
FUNCTIONS OF THE MEDIA......Page 373
Bibliography......Page 375
Volume II......Page 376
GAYS AND LESBIANS IN THE MEDIA......Page 380
Gender Portrayals in Media......Page 382
Effects of Gender Portrayals on Viewers......Page 384
Bibliography......Page 385
Conceptual Elements......Page 386
The Information......Page 387
GLOBALIZATION OF CULTURE THROUGH THE MEDIA......Page 388
Cultural Imperialism and the Global Media Debate......Page 389
Media, Globalization, and Hybridization......Page 390
GLOBALIZATION OF MEDIA INDUSTRIES......Page 392
The Rise of Global Media......Page 393
Globalization and the Internet......Page 394
Continuing Convergence and the Transition to a Digital World......Page 395
Bibliography......Page 396
GREELEY, HORACE (1811–1872)......Page 397
GRIFFITH, D. W. (1875–1948)......Page 398
Bibliography......Page 400
Function of Group Communication......Page 401
Specific Subjects of Study......Page 402
Evolution of the Study of Group Communication......Page 403
Bibliography......Page 404
How and Why Groups Engage in Conflict......Page 405
How People Should Engage in Conflict......Page 406
Approaches to Understanding Decision-Making Communication......Page 408
Common Difficulties in Group Communication......Page 409
Overcoming Problems......Page 410
Importance of Understanding Dynamics......Page 411
Group Development Phases......Page 412
Conformity......Page 413
Networks......Page 414
GROUP COMMUNICATION, ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN......Page 415
Decision Making......Page 416
Bibliography......Page 417
GUTENBERG, JOHANNES (ca. 1400–1468)......Page 418
Bibliography......Page 420
HAINES, HELEN E. (1872–1961)......Page 421
Bibliography......Page 422
Health Communication as an Important Area of Study......Page 423
Need for Relevant Health Information......Page 424
Health Communication and Health Informatics......Page 425
Major Levels and Areas of Inquiry......Page 426
Conclusion......Page 428
Education and Training......Page 429
Health Promotion......Page 430
Health Sales and Account Management......Page 431
HEARST, WILLIAM RANDOLPH (1863–1951)......Page 432
HOME AS INFORMATION ENVIRONMENT......Page 433
Origins of Home-Based Information Technology......Page 434
Overview of Information Technology in the Home......Page 435
Trends of Information Technology in the Home......Page 437
Bibliography......Page 438
Research and Development......Page 439
Usability and Design......Page 440
Information Selection......Page 443
Information Retention......Page 444
Factors That Influence Message Reception......Page 445
Conclusion......Page 447
Bibliography......Page 448
What Is Information?......Page 449
Information in Historic Language......Page 450
Information Versus Physical Objects......Page 451
Conclusion......Page 453
Information as Product......Page 454
Functions of the Information Industry......Page 455
Roles within the Information Industry......Page 456
Issues and the Future......Page 457
INFORMATION SOCIETY, DESCRIPTION OF......Page 458
The Information Economy......Page 459
Postindustrial Society......Page 460
Key Social Issues......Page 462
Bibliography......Page 464
INNIS, HAROLD ADAMS (1894–1952)......Page 465
INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION......Page 467
Empirical Inquiry......Page 469
Critical Inquiry......Page 472
Bibliography......Page 473
Censorship in History......Page 474
Censorship in the United States......Page 475
Censorship in Other Countries......Page 478
Conclusion......Page 479
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION, ADAPTATION AND......Page 480
Acculturation, Deculturation, and Stress......Page 481
Host Communication Competence......Page 482
Adaptive Change over Time......Page 483
Ideology and Adaptation......Page 484
Bibliography......Page 486
Key Terms and Definitions......Page 487
The Communicator......Page 488
The Environment......Page 489
Conclusion......Page 490
Bibliography......Page 491
Definitions......Page 492
History......Page 493
Technical Underpinnings......Page 494
Web Basics......Page 497
Bibliography......Page 499
History of the Study of Interpersonal Communication......Page 500
Major Approaches to Interpersonal Communication......Page 501
Some Important Interpersonal Communication Concepts......Page 503
Conclusion......Page 505
Bibliography......Page 506
Content......Page 507
Conclusion......Page 510
Bibliography......Page 511
The NCA Communication Ethics Commission......Page 512
Additional Rules, Guidelines, and Perspectives......Page 513
Bibliography......Page 514
Definition......Page 515
Active Listening......Page 516
Being More than an Active Responder......Page 517
Studying Intrapersonal Communication......Page 518
Defining “Intrapersonal Relationships”......Page 519
Bibliography......Page 520
The 1830s and the Penny Press......Page 521
The Civil War and News Innovations......Page 522
The 1980s and Beyond......Page 524
JOURNALISM, PROFESSIONALIZATION OF......Page 525
Bibliography......Page 527
Types of Organizational Knowledge......Page 528
Knowledge Sharing......Page 530
Knowledge Management in Practice......Page 531
Bibliography......Page 532
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT, CAREERS IN......Page 533
KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION......Page 535
The Structure of Language......Page 536
Stages of Language Acquisition......Page 537
Theories of Language Acquisition......Page 539
Bibliography......Page 540
The Origins of Language......Page 541
Language Acquisition......Page 542
Pragmatics......Page 543
Conclusion......Page 545
LANGUAGE STRUCTURE......Page 546
Basic Structures......Page 547
Overall Structural Organization......Page 549
Bibliography......Page 550
LAZARSFELD, PAUL F. (1901–1976)......Page 551
LIBRARIANS......Page 552
LIBRARIES, DIGITAL......Page 554
Digital Library Collections......Page 555
Digital Library Technologies......Page 556
Costs and Benefits of Digital Libraries......Page 557
LIBRARIES, FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF......Page 558
Types......Page 559
Functions......Page 561
Information Technology and Libraries......Page 562
Commodification of Information......Page 563
The Library as Place......Page 564
Bibliography......Page 565
LIBRARIES, HISTORY OF......Page 566
LIBRARIES, NATIONAL......Page 568
Functions of National Libraries......Page 569
Library Growth and the Related Problems......Page 570
U.S. Institutions......Page 571
Definition and Typology of Associations......Page 572
Library Associations in the United States......Page 573
Library Consortia in the United States......Page 574
International Consortia......Page 575
In the Beginning......Page 576
Progress......Page 577
Standards......Page 578
The Digital Library......Page 579
LICKLIDER, JOSEPH CARL ROBNETT (1915–1990)......Page 580
Libraries of the Future......Page 581
Early History......Page 582
The Spread of Literacy......Page 584
Literacy in the Twentieth Century......Page 586
LITERACY, COMPUTER......Page 589
LUMIÈRE, AUGUSTE (1862–1954) LUMIÈRE, LOUIS (1864–1948)......Page 590
Bibliography......Page 592
Areas of Study......Page 593
MAGAZINE INDUSTRY......Page 594
Basic Staff Structures......Page 595
Historical Changes in the Industry......Page 597
Technology and Trends......Page 598
MAGAZINE INDUSTRY, CAREERS IN......Page 599
Bibliography......Page 600
The Eighteenth Century......Page 601
The Nineteenth Century......Page 602
The Twentieth Century......Page 603
The Twenty-First Century......Page 604
Planning and Preparing Content......Page 605
Production, Printing, and Distribution......Page 606
Maintaining Editorial Focus......Page 607
Technological Advancements......Page 608
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS......Page 609
Historical Roots......Page 610
Framework for Definition......Page 611
Unrealized Promise......Page 613
MARCONI, GUGLIELMO (1874–1937)......Page 614
Bibliography......Page 616
MARKETING RESEARCH, CAREERS IN......Page 617
Bibliography......Page 618
McLUHAN, HERBERT MARSHALL (1911–1980)......Page 619
MEAD, GEORGE HERBERT (1863–1931)......Page 621
MÉLIÈS, GEORGES (1861–1938)......Page 623
MILLS, C. WRIGHT (1916–1962)......Page 626
Bibliography......Page 627
Portrayals of Race and Ethnicity......Page 628
Responses by Minorities to Media Portrayals of Minorities......Page 630
Effects on Caucasian Viewers......Page 631
Bibliography......Page 632
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION......Page 633
MOOD EFFECTS AND MEDIA EXPOSURE......Page 634
Media Effects on Moods......Page 635
Mood Management through Communication Choices......Page 636
Nonconscious Choices......Page 637
Utilities of Bad-Mood Perpetuation......Page 638
Bibliography......Page 639
MOORE, ANNE CARROLL (1871–1961)......Page 640
MORSE, SAMUEL F. B. (1791–1872)......Page 642
MURROW, EDWARD R. (1908–1965)......Page 644
The History of Museums......Page 646
The Modern Museum......Page 648
Museums and Information Resources......Page 652
MUSIC, POPULAR......Page 654
Music Preferences......Page 655
Interpretation and Effects......Page 656
Bibliography......Page 658
NATIONAL TELEVISION VIOLENCE STUDY......Page 659
Foundations of the Study......Page 660
Definition of Violence......Page 662
Coding and Training......Page 663
Major Findings......Page 664
Bibliography......Page 666
Network Data, Measures, and Analysis......Page 667
Developments and Debates......Page 669
Bibliography......Page 670
News Reception and Interpretation......Page 671
Information Acquisition and Retention......Page 672
News and Issue Perception......Page 673
News and Emotions......Page 675
Bibliography......Page 676
A Future for Newspapers?......Page 677
What Is the Newspaper Market?......Page 678
Eras and Adaptations......Page 679
Bibliography......Page 682
NEWSPAPER INDUSTRY, CAREERS IN......Page 683
Bibliography......Page 684
Colonial America......Page 685
Post-Revolutionary Partisanship and Technological Advancement......Page 686
The Penny Press......Page 687
Photography......Page 688
Changing Formats and Increasing Objectivity......Page 689
Modern Technological Innovations......Page 690
Framing the News......Page 691
Hierarchy of Influences Model......Page 692
Bibliography......Page 694
The History......Page 695
The Relationship Between Verbal and Nonverbal Communication......Page 696
The Structures and Properties of Nonverbal Communication......Page 697
The Origins of Nonverbal Communication......Page 698
Sources of Nonverbal Communication......Page 699
Bibliography......Page 702
NUTRITION AND MEDIA EFFECTS......Page 703
Bibliography......Page 704
OPINION POLLING, CAREERS IN......Page 706
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION......Page 707
Organizational Theories and the Role of Communication......Page 708
Applications of Organizational Communication......Page 709
Bibliography......Page 710
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION, CAREERS IN......Page 711
Communication Careers......Page 712
Organizational Communication and Information Professionals......Page 713
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE......Page 714
Six Core Concepts......Page 716
Quality Strategies and Processes......Page 718
Bibliography......Page 719
PALEY, WILLIAM S. (1901–1990)......Page 720
Bibliography......Page 721
PARADIGM AND COMMUNICATION......Page 722
PARANORMAL EVENTS AND THE MEDIA......Page 723
What Is Mediation?......Page 726
How Successful Is Mediation?......Page 727
Bibliography......Page 729
PEIRCE, CHARLES SANDERS (1839–1914)......Page 730
Bibliography......Page 731
Pirate Radio......Page 732
Clandestine Broadcasting......Page 734
Modern Pirates......Page 735
POLITICAL ECONOMY......Page 736
Bibliography......Page 738
Volume III......Page 739
What Is Pornography?......Page 743
Effects of Viewing Pornography......Page 744
The Special Case of Violent Pornography......Page 748
The Political Wild Card......Page 750
Bibliography......Page 751
History......Page 754
The Obscenity Standard......Page 755
Obscenity and the Internet......Page 757
Bibliography......Page 758
Conservation and Preservation......Page 759
Photographs......Page 760
Motion Picture Film, Audiotape, and Videotape......Page 762
Facsimiles and Reformatting......Page 763
Conclusion......Page 764
PRICE, DEREK JOHN DE SOLLA (1922–1983)......Page 765
Bibliography......Page 766
The Hand Press Era......Page 767
The Era of Mass Production......Page 770
PRIVACY AND COMMUNICATION......Page 772
Intrusion......Page 773
Appropriation and the Right of Publicity......Page 775
PRIVACY AND ENCRYPTION......Page 776
Computers and Privacy......Page 777
Bibliography......Page 779
The Problem of Definition......Page 780
Propaganda During and Between the World Wars......Page 781
The Cold War and Its Aftermath......Page 783
Bibliography......Page 784
Relationship Development and Health-Care Delivery......Page 785
Content and Relationship Messages in Health Care......Page 786
Assessing Risks and Benefits......Page 787
Research with Special Populations......Page 788
PUBLIC BROADCASTING......Page 789
History of Educational and Public Broadcasting......Page 790
Public Policy and Funding Patterns......Page 794
New Media and Digital Technology......Page 797
Summary and Conclusion......Page 799
Bibliography......Page 800
Frailty of Messages that Promote Health......Page 801
Message Strategies and Communication Channels......Page 802
Strategic Public Health Campaign Model......Page 803
Bibliography......Page 805
PUBLIC RELATIONS......Page 806
Development of Public Relations......Page 807
Settings, Structures, and Strategies......Page 809
Maintaining Professional Standards......Page 811
The Centrality of Public Relations......Page 813
PUBLIC RELATIONS, CAREERS IN......Page 814
PUBLIC SERVICE MEDIA......Page 816
PUBLIC SPEAKING......Page 819
Basic Principles......Page 820
Conclusion......Page 823
Basic Career Characteristics......Page 824
PUBLISHING INDUSTRY......Page 825
Literacy, Education, and Libraries......Page 826
Authors, Writers, and the Publishing Process......Page 827
Publishing Houses......Page 828
Publisher Associations......Page 829
Book Fairs......Page 830
Censorship, Banning, and Embargo......Page 831
International Publishing......Page 832
The Future in Publishing......Page 833
Creative Careers......Page 834
Business Careers......Page 835
PULITZER, JOSEPH (1847–1911)......Page 836
QUALITY OF AN ORGANIZATION......Page 838
Major Companies in the Radio Industry......Page 839
The Products of Radio......Page 840
Industry Evolution......Page 841
Conclusion......Page 842
On-Air Positions......Page 843
Off-Air Positions......Page 844
Early Development of Technology......Page 845
The First Wireless Regulations......Page 846
Development of Radio Networks......Page 847
Golden Age of Radio Programming......Page 848
The Decline of AM Radio and the Rise of FM Radio......Page 849
RADIO BROADCASTING, STATION PROGRAMMING AND......Page 850
Station Formats......Page 851
Contemporary Programming......Page 853
The Future......Page 854
Microphones......Page 855
Music Sources......Page 856
Tape Recorders......Page 857
Monitors, Audio Processors, and Transmitters......Page 858
RANGANATHAN, SHIYALI RAMAMRITA (1892–1972)......Page 859
The Rating Process......Page 861
Criticisms of the Ratings......Page 862
Effects of the Ratings......Page 863
Bibliography......Page 864
Research Relevant to the Television Ratings Controversy......Page 865
Public Criticism and the Revised System......Page 867
Bibliography......Page 868
The Ratings Controversy......Page 869
Descriptive Versus Evaluative Ratings......Page 870
Who Does the Rating?......Page 871
Many Voices, Many Values......Page 872
The Big Five......Page 873
Corporate Versus Independent......Page 874
Technology and the Internet......Page 875
RECORDING INDUSTRY, CAREERS IN......Page 877
RECORDING INDUSTRY, HISTORY OF......Page 879
RECORDING INDUSTRY, PRODUCTION PROCESS OF......Page 883
Preproduction......Page 884
Postproduction......Page 885
Variations in the Production Process......Page 886
The Business Environment of Recordings......Page 887
Record Promotion......Page 888
Bibliography......Page 889
Microphones and Loudspeakers......Page 890
The Magnetic Tape Recorder......Page 891
Digital Conversion......Page 892
Digital Recorders......Page 893
RECORDS MANAGEMENT......Page 894
The Foundations of Modern Reference Service......Page 895
The Practice of Reference......Page 896
User Education......Page 898
Reference Referral Centers and Networks......Page 899
The Future of Reference Services......Page 900
Bibliography......Page 901
Coming Together......Page 902
Conclusion......Page 903
Romantic Relationships......Page 904
Conclusion......Page 905
The Electronic Church......Page 906
Televangelism......Page 907
RESEARCHERS FOR EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION PROGRAMS......Page 910
Information Interaction......Page 912
Cultural History......Page 913
Technology Research and Development......Page 914
RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION......Page 916
General Model of Information Retrieval......Page 917
Evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems......Page 920
Multimedia Information Retrieval......Page 923
Rhetoric Emerges as a Discipline......Page 924
Rhetoric as a Practical Skill and Master Art......Page 925
The Persistence and Expansion of Rhetoric......Page 926
Bibliography......Page 927
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN GROUP COMMUNICATION......Page 928
SARNOFF, DAVID (1891–1971)......Page 929
Major Satellite Service Providers......Page 931
Independent and Network News Feed Services......Page 932
Benefits and Costs of Satellite Services......Page 934
Bibliography......Page 935
Early Satellites......Page 936
Video Feed Services......Page 937
SATELLITES, TECHNOLOGY OF......Page 938
Hardware and “Windows”......Page 939
The Downlink......Page 940
Mix-Minus......Page 941
SCHRAMM, WILBUR (1907–1987)......Page 942
Conceptual Framework of Semiotics......Page 944
Scope of Semiotics......Page 945
Research and Production......Page 946
Educational Effectiveness......Page 948
Influence on Social Behavior......Page 949
The Media As Sex Educators......Page 951
Sexual Content......Page 952
Conclusion......Page 955
Bibliography......Page 956
SOAP OPERAS......Page 957
SOCIAL CHANGE AND THE MEDIA......Page 959
Development Communication......Page 960
Social Marketing Theory......Page 961
Bibliography......Page 962
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY AND MEDIA EFFECTS......Page 963
Prosocial Content on Television......Page 965
Investigating Prosocial Effects......Page 966
Effects on Positive Social Interactions......Page 967
Effects on Tolerance and Stereotype Reduction......Page 968
Mixing Prosocial and Antisocial Content......Page 969
Bibliography......Page 970
The Limited Effects of the Media......Page 971
The Paradigm Begins to Shift......Page 973
Return to Macroscopic Theory......Page 974
Critical Cultural Theory......Page 975
Contemporary Theories......Page 976
SOCIOLINGUISTICS......Page 977
Social Dialects, Style, and Register......Page 978
Multilingualism, Bilingualism, and Diglossia......Page 979
Lingua Franca, Pidgins, and Creoles......Page 980
Language and Culture......Page 981
Politeness......Page 982
Ethnography of Communication......Page 983
Language and Media......Page 984
Bibliography......Page 985
Motives of Indirect Sport Spectators......Page 986
Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 991
Bibliography......Page 992
Standards as Solutions......Page 993
Standards as Agreements......Page 994
Bibliography......Page 995
STORYTELLERS......Page 996
The Nature of Storytelling......Page 997
The Storied Life......Page 999
Bibliography......Page 1001
Meaning......Page 1002
SYSTEMS DESIGNERS......Page 1003
Requirements......Page 1004
Bibliography......Page 1005
Controversies over Talk Shows......Page 1006
The Content of Talk Shows......Page 1007
Bibliography......Page 1008
Foundations of Diffusion Theory......Page 1009
Application of Diffusion Theory......Page 1010
Broad Scope and Appeal of Diffusion Theory......Page 1011
TECHNOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY OF......Page 1012
Metaphysics......Page 1013
Conclusion......Page 1014
TELECOMMUNICATIONS, WIRELESS......Page 1015
History......Page 1019
Regulations and Deregulations......Page 1020
The First Telephone Century......Page 1022
Convergence, the Internet, and the Telecommunications Act of 1996......Page 1023
The Telephone Industry Transformed......Page 1024
Bibliography......Page 1026
Early Organization......Page 1027
The AT&T Monopoly and Technical Advances in Telephony......Page 1029
Bibliography......Page 1031
TELEPHONE INDUSTRY, REGULATION OF......Page 1032
Bibliography......Page 1035
The Telephone Network......Page 1036
Transmission Technologies......Page 1037
The Digital Revolution......Page 1038
Wireless Telephony......Page 1039
TELEVISION, EDUCATIONAL......Page 1040
Research on Educational Television Programs......Page 1041
Conclusions......Page 1043
The Television Broadcasting System......Page 1044
Production......Page 1046
Distribution......Page 1047
Bibliography......Page 1048
TELEVISION BROADCASTING, CAREERS IN......Page 1049
TELEVISION BROADCASTING, EDUCATIONAL......Page 1050
Programming......Page 1051
Television News......Page 1053
Technology......Page 1054
TELEVISION BROADCASTING, PRODUCTION OF......Page 1055
Preproduction......Page 1056
Postproduction......Page 1057
Other Considerations......Page 1058
Programming Sources......Page 1060
Programming Goals......Page 1062
Audience Measurement......Page 1063
General Organization of a Television Station......Page 1064
The Evolution of Station Operations......Page 1068
Cameras and Accessories......Page 1069
Video Switcher......Page 1070
Audio......Page 1071
Editing......Page 1072
TOBACCO AND MEDIA EFFECTS......Page 1073
Bibliography......Page 1075
Information Uses......Page 1077
The Importance of Context......Page 1079
Barriers to Information Use......Page 1080
Making Information Useful......Page 1081
V-CHIP......Page 1082
Different Types of Computer Games......Page 1084
The Macho World in Video and Computer Games......Page 1085
The Effects of Video Games......Page 1086
The Internet......Page 1087
Bibliography......Page 1088
Social Motivations for the Viewing of Mediated Violence......Page 1089
Psychological Processes that Underlie the Viewing of Mediated Violence......Page 1090
Bibliography......Page 1091
The Payne Fund Studies......Page 1092
The Rise of Television......Page 1093
The Report of the Surgeon General......Page 1094
Theories of Media Violence......Page 1096
Research Evidence and the Question of Causation......Page 1098
Bibliography......Page 1100
History of Visualization......Page 1102
Scientific Visualization Versus Information Visualization......Page 1103
Typical Applications of Visualization......Page 1104
Bibliography......Page 1105
WEBER, MAX (1864–1920)......Page 1107
WEBMASTERS......Page 1108
Bibliography......Page 1110
WELLES, ORSON (1915–1985)......Page 1111
Bibliography......Page 1112
WILLIAMS, RAYMOND (1921–1988)......Page 1113
Bibliography......Page 1114
WILSON, HALSEY WILLIAM (1868–1954)......Page 1115
WITTGENSTEIN, LUDWIG (1889–1951)......Page 1116
WRITERS......Page 1118
WRITING......Page 1120
ZOOLOGY......Page 1121
A......Page 1122
B......Page 1126
C......Page 1129
D......Page 1137
E......Page 1140
F......Page 1142
G......Page 1145
H......Page 1147
I......Page 1149
K......Page 1153
L......Page 1154
M......Page 1156
N......Page 1161
O......Page 1163
P......Page 1165
Q......Page 1169
R......Page 1170
S......Page 1172
T......Page 1177
U......Page 1180
V......Page 1182
W......Page 1183
Z......Page 1186