Encyclopedia of Caves (Second Edition)

Front matter......Page 2
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CAVES......Page 4
Copyright / ISBN: 978-0-12-383832-2......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Contents By Subject Area......Page 10
List of Contributors......Page 12
Cross-References......Page 14
Index......Page 15
Preface......Page 16
Food Input......Page 18
Influence of Cave Type......Page 19
General Energy Demand......Page 20
Excitement and Aggression......Page 21
Character Reduction......Page 22
Longevity......Page 23
Periodic Starvation......Page 24
Back to the Network......Page 25
Theory of Adaptive Shift......Page 26
Response to Stress......Page 27
Environmental Stresses......Page 28
Cixiid Planthoppers (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha: Cixiidae)......Page 29
Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)......Page 31
Moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)......Page 32
The Future......Page 33
Geography and Some Historical Data......Page 34
Cave Morphology and Hydrology......Page 35
Noncrustacean Groups in the Anchihaline Fauna......Page 36
Anchihaline Crustacea......Page 37
Biogeography......Page 39
Biology and Ecological Distribution of Inhabitants......Page 40
Theoretical Importance of Anchihaline Habitats......Page 41
Introduction......Page 42
Prehistoric Archaeology in the World’s Longest Cave......Page 43
Archaeological Evidence......Page 44
Interpretations......Page 45
Conclusion......Page 46
Introduction......Page 47
Postojna-Planina Cave System......Page 48
Asellus Kosswigi......Page 50
Continental Scale......Page 51
See Also the Following Articles......Page 53
Natural History of Astyanax Mexicanus......Page 54
Troglomorphic Traits......Page 55
Developmental Basis of Troglomorphic Traits......Page 57
Inheritance and Genetic Basis of Troglomorphic Traits......Page 58
Evolution of Troglomorphic Traits......Page 59
Bibliography......Page 60
Introduction......Page 62
Functions of Cave Roosts......Page 63
Rearing Young......Page 64
Hibernation......Page 65
Benefits......Page 66
Conservation and Management......Page 67
Ecosystem Services Provided by Cave-Roosting Bats......Page 68
Threats to Cave Bats from White-Nose Syndrome......Page 69
The Paradox of Vampire Bats......Page 70
Introduction......Page 71
Adaptations......Page 72
Systematics of Cave Beetles......Page 73
Geographical Distribution and Colonization......Page 75
Ecology......Page 76
Importance and Protection......Page 78
Behavioral Adaptations......Page 79
Reproductive Behavior......Page 80
Aggressive Behavior......Page 82
Breakdown Morphology......Page 85
Large-Scale Features......Page 86
Breakdown Mechanics......Page 87
Crystal Wedging or Limestone Replacement to Initiate Breakdown......Page 89
Bibliography......Page 90
Physical and Geologic Setting......Page 91
History of Exploration......Page 92
Better Forgotten Cave......Page 94
Bobcat Cave (Chestnut Ridge Cave System)......Page 95
Burns Chestnut Ridge Cave (Chestnut Ridge Cave System)......Page 96
Battered Bar Cave......Page 97
Basswood Cave......Page 98
Special Attributes......Page 99
Bibliography......Page 100
Camps......Page 102
Morphology and Genesis......Page 106
Modern Hydrology......Page 107
The Climate of the Cave......Page 110
Introduction......Page 111
Cave Deposits and Processes......Page 113
The Prehistoric and Historical Sequence of Cave Occupations in the Middle East......Page 114
Physical Environment and Habitat Zones......Page 116
Energy Flux and Limitation......Page 117
Nutrients......Page 118
Bibliography......Page 119
Caves as Geological Repositories and Caves as Parts of Groundwater Flow Paths......Page 120
Caves as Habitat......Page 121
Types of Caves......Page 122
The Distribution and Diversity of Chinese Cavefish......Page 124
Biology of Chinese Cavefish......Page 125
The Characteristics of Chinese Cavefish......Page 129
Changes in Body Shape......Page 130
Humpback and Horn......Page 131
Sensory Apparatus......Page 133
Eye Degeneration......Page 134
Disappearance of Scales......Page 137
Phylogenesis, Speciation Mechanisms, and Biogeography......Page 138
Research and Conservation......Page 141
Introduction......Page 142
Terminology Explained......Page 143
Hydrogen......Page 144
Reduced Inorganic Sulfur Compounds......Page 145
One-Carbon Compounds......Page 146
Sulfur Cycle......Page 147
Nitrogen Cycle......Page 149
Chemolithoautotrophically-Based Cave Ecosystems......Page 150
Basic Physical Properties......Page 151
Stratigraphy......Page 153
Sediment Production......Page 154
Stream Sediments......Page 155
Bibliography......Page 156
Morphology and Size of Dolines......Page 157
The Structure of Dolines......Page 158
Hydrological Behavior and Related Solution Processes in Dolines......Page 159
Examples of Evolution......Page 162
Populations of Dolines Linked to Specific Environmental Conditions......Page 164
Collapse Dolines......Page 167
Subsidence Dolines......Page 168
Uvalas and Compound and Polygenetic Sinks......Page 169
Depressions in Karst Areas......Page 170
Sea Caves......Page 172
Flank Margin Caves......Page 173
Blue Holes......Page 176
Natural and Anthropogenic Sources......Page 178
General Chemistry......Page 179
Iron and Manganese......Page 180
Suspended and Bed Sediments......Page 181
Summary......Page 182
NAPL Characteristics and Sources......Page 183
Transport Into Karst Aquifers......Page 185
Epikarst......Page 186
Fractures, Open Drains, and Sinking Streams......Page 187
Wells......Page 188
Introduction......Page 189
Burial Dating With Cosmogenic Nuclides......Page 190
Requirements for Burial Dating......Page 191
Example 1: The Development of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky......Page 192
Bibliography......Page 193
Class Branchiopoda......Page 194
Class Remipedia......Page 196
Subclass Mystacocarida......Page 197
Subclass Copepoda......Page 198
Class Ostracoda......Page 199
Superorder Syncarida......Page 200
Superorder Peracarida......Page 201
Superorder Eucarida......Page 208
Bibliography......Page 210
Traits of the Dinaric Karst......Page 212
Lithology of the Dinaric Karst......Page 215
Karst Features of the Dinaric Karst......Page 216
Bibliography......Page 219
Introduction......Page 220
Shield Regions and the Cretaceous Marine Transgressions......Page 221
Cave Atmosphere......Page 222
Energy Supply......Page 225
Syncarida......Page 226
Ostracoda......Page 228
Isopoda......Page 229
Decapoda......Page 230
Amblypygi......Page 231
Araneae......Page 232
Blattodea......Page 233
Coleoptera Dystiscidae......Page 234
Acknowledgments......Page 235
Introduction......Page 236
Diversity Comparisons To Other Continents......Page 237
Troglomorphy and Relictness......Page 238
Geographic Patterns within Europe......Page 241
Assessing European Biodiversity Patterns for Conservation......Page 243
What is the Dinaric Karst?......Page 245
Terrestrial Cave Fauna......Page 247
Aquatic Subterranean Fauna......Page 250
Widely Spread Taxa......Page 251
Endemism......Page 252
Special Assemblages......Page 253
Pollution and Protection......Page 254
Current State of Knowledge......Page 255
Cave Freshwater......Page 257
Oligotrophic Terrestrial Habitats and Troglobionts......Page 258
Troglophilic and Stygophilic Species......Page 259
Geographical Patterns of Species Richness......Page 260
Relictual Versus Nonrelictual Taxa......Page 264
Endemism and Vulnerability......Page 266
Bibliography......Page 267
Introduction......Page 268
Distribution of Karst, Caves, and Cavernicoles......Page 269
Class Oligochaeta......Page 271
Class Mollusca......Page 272
Class Arachnida......Page 273
Class Malacostraca......Page 274
Class Hexapoda......Page 275
Class Insecta......Page 276
Class Reptilia......Page 277
Class Mammalia......Page 278
Bibliography......Page 280
History......Page 281
Recording......Page 282
Information Storage......Page 283
Surveying and Mapping......Page 284
Data Safety......Page 285
Components......Page 286
Database Issues......Page 287
Where to from Here?......Page 288
Bibliography......Page 289
Ecological Classification of Subterranean Organisms......Page 292
Introduction: Humankind’s Need for Exploration and Discovery......Page 294
Environmental Settings of Entranceless Caves......Page 295
Stalking the Elusive Entranceless Cave......Page 296
Locations of Entrances......Page 297
Types of Cave Entrances......Page 298
Statistics of Cave Entrances......Page 299
Entrances as Paleontological and Archaeological Sites......Page 300
In Ecology......Page 301
Epikarst, A Not Yet Fully Agreed Concept......Page 302
Place of Epikarst in Karst Evolution and Morphology......Page 303
Bibliography......Page 304
Environmental Conditions......Page 305
Taxonomic Composition......Page 307
Estimating Total Species Richness of Epikarst Copepods......Page 308
Biogeography of Epikarst Species......Page 310
Ecology of Epikarst Species......Page 311
Colonization of Subterranean Habitats......Page 312
Models of Genetic Differentiation and Origin of Troglobites......Page 314
Single Versus Multiple Origin of Troglobites......Page 315
Constructive versus Regressive Traits: Definitions and Mechanisms......Page 316
An Overview of Molecular Data......Page 318
Bibliography......Page 320
Vertical Caves......Page 321
Light Sources......Page 322
Cave Packs......Page 323
Going Up......Page 324
Underwater Caves......Page 325
See Also the Following Articles......Page 326
Exploration of Caves—Underwater Exploration Techniques......Page 327
Introduction......Page 331
Rigging......Page 332
Sit Harness......Page 333
Ascending......Page 334
Traverses and Tyroleans......Page 335
Vertical from the Bottom Up......Page 336
Bibliography......Page 337
Folklore, Myth, and Legend, Caves in......Page 338
Observations and First Principles......Page 340
Species Adaptations Predicted from Hypotheses of Limited Food......Page 341
Exceptions That Prove the Rule of Food Limitation in Caves......Page 343
Aquatic versus Terrestrial Contrasts for Extremes of Food Quality......Page 345
Terrestrial Extremes of Food Types: Leaves, Feces, Dead Bodies, and Cricket Eggs......Page 346
A Plethora of Fecal Types......Page 348
Cave Crickets as Key Industry Species......Page 350
Hydrology and Hydrogeology......Page 351
History of Exploration......Page 353
Hydrology of the Cave......Page 354
Cave Paleohydrology......Page 355
Bibliography......Page 356
General Hypotheses on the Mechanism of Adaptation to the Cave Environment......Page 358
Criteria for the Study of Adaptation to the Cave Environment......Page 359
General Ecology of Gammarus Minus......Page 360
Variation in Gammarus Minus......Page 361
Origin of Troglomorphic Cave Populations of Gammarus Minus......Page 362
Bibliography......Page 364
Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI)......Page 365
Audio-Magnetotelluric Soundings (AMT)......Page 366
Thermal Variation......Page 367
Cave Radiolocation......Page 368
Bibliography......Page 369
Introduction to Glaciers......Page 370
Englacial Caves......Page 371
Subglacial Caves......Page 373
Guano and its Importance to Cave Communities and to Science......Page 374
Types of Guano......Page 375
The Fauna Associated with Guano Deposits—Definitions......Page 376
Community Structure and Succession in Bat-Guano Piles......Page 377
The Associated Fauna—Examples......Page 378
Conclusions......Page 380
Occurrence of Gypsum and Types of Gypsum Karsts......Page 381
Implication of Equilibrium Chemistry and Dissolution Kinetics to Speleogenesis in Gypsum......Page 382
Speleogenesis in Different Types of Karsts......Page 383
Summary......Page 389
Bibliography......Page 390
Speleothems......Page 391
Sources and Depositional Mechanisms of Evaporite Minerals......Page 392
Bibliography......Page 394
Anthodites......Page 396
Frostwork......Page 397
Subaqueous Helictites......Page 398
Subaqueous “Helictite Bushes”......Page 399
Porous Media Aquifers......Page 400
The Triple Porosity Model......Page 401
Conduit Permeability......Page 402
Karst Groundwater Basins and Groundwater Flow Systems......Page 404
Discharge Characteristics: Hydrographs......Page 405
Base Flow/Area Relationships......Page 406
Contaminant Transport......Page 407
Definition......Page 408
Shallow Hydrothermal Karst......Page 409
Dissolution in Subaqueous and Subaerial Settings......Page 410
Single-Conduit Caves......Page 411
Phreatic Maze Caves......Page 412
Hydrothermal Cave Life......Page 413
Bibliography......Page 414
Ice in Caves......Page 416
Scientific Significance of Ice in Caves......Page 419
Introduction......Page 421
Escape from Epigean Predators and/or Strong Competitive Pressure......Page 422
Erosion of Sediment and the Drift of Subsurface Fauna with the Surface Water Flow......Page 423
The Ecological Evidence......Page 424
Bridging the Gap—Evolutionary Ecology at Work......Page 425
Bibliography......Page 426
Three-Dimensional Cave System......Page 428
Breakdown Modification......Page 429
Geology......Page 430
Cave Fill......Page 431
Bats......Page 432
Hydromagnesite Balloons......Page 433
Bibliography......Page 434
Controls on Karren Form......Page 436
Descriptions of Features......Page 437
Introduction......Page 442
Basic Controls......Page 443
Description of Some Karren Features......Page 444
Introduction......Page 447
Location......Page 448
History......Page 449
Karst Landforms......Page 450
Closed Depressions (Dolines, Sinkholes)......Page 451
Cones and Towers......Page 452
Alpine Karst......Page 453
See Also the Following Articles......Page 454
Human Impacts......Page 455
Speleogenesis......Page 456
Thermal Erosion......Page 457
Multilevel and Lavafall Development......Page 458
Bibliography......Page 459
Krubera Cave and other Deep Caves in the Arabika Massif......Page 460
The Arabika Massif: Geology......Page 464
The Arabika Massif: Hydrogeology......Page 465
Evolution of the Deep Cave System in Arabika......Page 466
Bibliography......Page 467
Definitions......Page 468
Composition and Ecology of Lampenflora......Page 469
Alteration of Underground Habitat......Page 470
Control and Restriction of Growth......Page 471
See Also the Following Article......Page 472
Physical Setting......Page 473
Stratigraphy and Structure......Page 474
Regional/Local Hydrogeology......Page 475
Mineralogy......Page 476
Description of the Cave......Page 477
History of Exploration......Page 479
Bibliography......Page 481
Life History Evolution of Amblyopsid Fish......Page 482
Generality of Life History Characteristics......Page 483
The Paradox of High Reproductive Effort in Cave Animals......Page 484
Bibliography......Page 485
Prehistoric Explorers and Miners......Page 486
History of Mammoth Cave......Page 487
Mammoth Cave Passage Patterns......Page 488
Mammoth Cave Minerals......Page 489
Biology of Mammoth Cave......Page 490
Introduction......Page 491
Decomposition of the Spatial Process......Page 492
Investigating Spatial Patterns......Page 493
Interpolators and Kriging......Page 494
Aggregation and Scale......Page 496
Bibliography......Page 498
Adaptability to Diverse Habitats......Page 499
When Thalassoid Limnostygobionts are the Sole Evidence of a Marine Transgression–Regression Cycle......Page 500
Dating Marine Regressions or Land Emersions from the  Extant Stygofauna......Page 501
Maya Caves......Page 503
Cave Burial......Page 504
Ethnohistory And Ethnography......Page 505
Caves and Community......Page 506
Microbial Diversity and Metabolism......Page 507
History of Microbiology Studies......Page 508
Molecular Methodologies......Page 509
Stable Isotope Ratio Analyses and Labeled Substrate Experiments......Page 510
Microbial Diversity of Caves and Karst......Page 511
The Future......Page 514
Bibliography......Page 515
Introduction......Page 516
Sulfates......Page 517
Phosphates......Page 521
Halides......Page 522
Arsenates and Vanadates......Page 523
Bibliography......Page 524
Calcium Equilibrium......Page 525
Calcium Flux Rate......Page 526
Modeling the Evolution of Karst Aquifers......Page 527
Introduction......Page 529
Taxonomic Patterns of Cave Mollusks......Page 530
Comments on Selected Species......Page 532
Troglomorphy......Page 534
Evolution of Troglomorphy......Page 535
Regressive Evolution......Page 536
Effects of Environmental Factors on Adaptation......Page 538
Evidence of Troglomorphic Adaptation......Page 539
Occurrence of Morphological Troglomorphy......Page 540
Examples of Detailed Analysis of Troglomorphic Evolution......Page 542
Bibliography......Page 544
Caves and the Water Table......Page 545
Water Table Positions at Mammoth Cave, Kentucky......Page 546
Incision Pulses on the Cumberland River, Tennessee......Page 547
Mulu Caves, Malaysia......Page 548
Caves in Gunung Api......Page 549
Caves in Gunung Benarat......Page 552
Caves in Gunung Buda......Page 553
Bibliography......Page 554
Symphyla......Page 555
Chilopoda......Page 556
Diplopoda......Page 557
Bibliography......Page 558
Historical Development......Page 560
The Action of Natural Selection in Caves......Page 561
The Selective Regime in Caves......Page 563
The Role of Natural Selection in Colonization and Speciation......Page 564
Conclusions and Prospects......Page 565
Neutral Mutations......Page 566
Introduction......Page 572
Physiological Tolerance to Abiotic Factors in Relation to Distributional Data......Page 573
Interspecific Interactions: Predation and Competition......Page 576
Phylogeny Reveals Morphological Diversity and Stasis......Page 577
Conclusions......Page 579
Background Information......Page 581
Land-Use Factors......Page 582
Nitrate Contamination of Springs......Page 583
Bibliography......Page 584
Physical Setting......Page 585
Prehistory, History, and Speleological History......Page 588
Origin and Enlargement of the Caves......Page 589
Minerals......Page 591
Conclusion......Page 592
Bibliography......Page 593
Importance of Absolute Chronology: Dating Techniques......Page 594
The Early Studies: Paleotemperature......Page 595
Devils Hole: The First Long, Continous High-Resolution Speleothem-Based Paleoclimate Record......Page 596
The Last Glacial: Contribution from Stalagmites......Page 597
Ties between Solar Variability and Climate Change......Page 598
Annual Laminations in Stalagmites and Late Holocene Climate Change......Page 599
Vegetation and Soil Dynamics......Page 600
Other Studies......Page 601
Introduction......Page 602
Paleomagnetism of Clastic Cave Sediments......Page 603
Importance of the Paleomagnetic Record in Caves......Page 605
See Also the Following Articles......Page 606
Introduction......Page 607
Raptors......Page 608
Large Carnivorans......Page 609
Bears......Page 610
Wolves......Page 611
Rodents......Page 612
Other Vertebrate Sites......Page 613
Importance of Fossil Vertebrates from Caves......Page 614
Stages of Cave Development......Page 615
Competition between Initial Flow Routes......Page 616
Vertical Organization of Cave Passages......Page 617
Development of Maze Caves......Page 618
Adjustment of Caves to Changing Conditions......Page 619
Definitions and Concepts......Page 620
Patterns of Cave Passages......Page 621
Passage Morphology and Evolution......Page 623
Introduction......Page 625
Migration......Page 626
Population Structure at Regional Scale......Page 627
Population Structure in Aquatic Troglobites: Hydrological Routes Versus Adaptive Diversity......Page 629
Population Structure and Habitat Heterogeneity......Page 631
Genetic Variability, Population Size, and Natural Selection......Page 632
Bibliography......Page 634
Geologic Setting......Page 635
Other Interesting Research in the Postojna Cave System......Page 638
History of Exploration......Page 639
Paleontology/Archaeology......Page 640
Are There Good Reasons to Gate the Cave?......Page 641
Bats......Page 642
Cave Preserve Design......Page 643
Cave Gate Styles......Page 645
Are There Good Reasons Not to Gate the Cave?......Page 647
Cave Management......Page 648
Prioritizing Caves......Page 649
Bibliography......Page 650
Lithology and Occurrence......Page 652
Cave Morphology......Page 654
Controls on Quartzite Cave Genesis and Development......Page 655
Bibliography......Page 656
Lava Caves......Page 658
Activities Not Considered Caving......Page 659
Factors Contributing to Recreational Cave Visitation......Page 660
The Occasional DownSide......Page 661
Why Doesn’t Everyone Cave?......Page 662
Demographic Factors......Page 663
Summary......Page 664
History of Rescue......Page 665
Learning from the Past......Page 666
The Present......Page 667
Supply and Consumption of Dissolved Oxygen in Groundwater......Page 668
Small-Scale Heterogeneity in Dissolved Oxygen in Groundwater......Page 669
Survival Times Under Anoxia......Page 670
Behavioral Responses......Page 671
During Anoxia......Page 672
Imbrication of Adaptive Strategies to Low Food Resources and Low Oxygen Supply......Page 673
Bibliography......Page 674
Energy Sources......Page 675
O2 and CO2......Page 676
Tree Roots......Page 678
Bad Air (Saturated Humidity Plus High Carbon Dioxide/Low Oxygen) Zone......Page 679
See Also the Following Articles......Page 680
Bibliography......Page 681
Olms and Waterdogs (Proteidae)......Page 682
Olm (Proteus anguinus)......Page 683
Texas Cave and Spring-Dwelling Eurycea......Page 684
Typhlomolge (Blind Salamanders)......Page 685
Blepsimolge (Sighted Salamanders)......Page 686
Other Troglobitic and Troglophilic Eurycea......Page 687
Georgia Blind Salamander (Haideotriton wallacei)......Page 688
Spring Salamanders (Gyrinophilus)......Page 689
Diversity Patterns of Salamanders Found in Caves......Page 691
Bibliography......Page 692
Saltpetre Mining......Page 693
Principal Physical Evidence of Mining......Page 694
Saltpetre Processing......Page 695
Scallops and Flutes......Page 696
Groundwater Flow Velocities......Page 697
Uses and Pitfalls of Scallop Discharge Data......Page 698
Other Phenomena......Page 699
Introduction......Page 700
Seepage Springs......Page 701
Hyporheic......Page 703
Generalities......Page 705
Bibliography......Page 706
The Environmental Protection of Show Caves......Page 707
The Development of a Show Cave......Page 708
2. Access and Pathways within the Cave......Page 710
4. Frequency of Visits and Number of Visitors......Page 711
Information on Show Caves in the World......Page 712
Bibliography......Page 714
Geographical and Geological Setting......Page 715
Bärenschacht (“Bear’s Shaft”)......Page 716
The Réseau Siebenhengste-Hohgant......Page 717
K2......Page 719
Genesis and age of the Cave Systems......Page 720
Cave Minerals......Page 721
Present and Past Fauna Discovered in the Caves......Page 723
Influent Rivers and Streams......Page 724
Function of Influent Streams......Page 726
Evolutionary Sequence of Losing and Sinking Streams......Page 727
Cave Description......Page 729
Geology......Page 733
Archaeology......Page 734
Soil Piping and Sinkhole Failures......Page 735
Introduction......Page 740
General Characteristics of Caves in High-Relief Areas......Page 741
Example of a Relative Chronology......Page 742
Réseau Siebenhengste-Hohgant, Switzerland......Page 743
Examples of Caves: Long Inclined Passages......Page 746
Cassowary System (Papua New Guinea)......Page 748
Conclusions......Page 749
Characteristics of Karst Regions of Moderate Relief......Page 750
Origin OF Solution Caves......Page 751
Field examples......Page 752
Dissected Plateaus of Southern Indiana and Western Kentucky......Page 753
The Ozark Plateaus......Page 754
Appalachian Plateaus......Page 755
Ridge and Valley Province, Appalachian Mountains......Page 756
Glaciated Plateaus of Northeastern and North-Central United States......Page 757
Summary......Page 759
Introduction......Page 760
Beetle Predators and their Cricket Egg Prey......Page 761
Competition and other Interactions in Appalachian Cave Streams......Page 763
Competition as a Result of Eutrophication......Page 764
Introduction......Page 765
Diagenetic Environments, Hydrogeological Cycles, and Hydrodynamic Zones of The Earth’s Crust......Page 767
Groundwater Systems and Regimes......Page 768
Hydrogeologic Cycle......Page 769
Evolution of Karst Settings......Page 770
Very Deep Perspective: The Endokarst Realm......Page 771
Chemical Mechanisms......Page 773
Hydrogeologic and Structural Controls......Page 776
Porosity Patterns......Page 778
Mesomorphology Features......Page 780
Bibliography......Page 781
Basic Dynamics of Speleogenesis......Page 782
Evolution of Conduit Networks......Page 784
The Chemistry of Precipitation and Dissolution of Calcite......Page 786
Precipitation Rates from thin Water Layers......Page 787
Precipitation from Water Films in Turbulent Flow......Page 788
Morphology of Regular Stalagmites......Page 789
A Similarity Rule of Regular Stalagmites......Page 792
Growth of Stalagmites Under Conditions Variable in Time......Page 793
Speleothem Minerals......Page 794
Speleothem Shapes......Page 795
Speleothems Created by Dripping Water......Page 796
Speleothems Created in Standing Water......Page 799
The Calcite/Aragonite Problem......Page 800
Speleothems in Volcanic Caves......Page 801
See Also the Following Articles......Page 802
Biology......Page 803
Order Scorpiones (Scorpions)......Page 804
Order Schizomida (Short-Tailed Whipscorpions)......Page 805
Order Araneae (Spiders)......Page 806
Order Pseudoscorpiones (Pseudoscorpions)......Page 808
Order Acari (Mites and Ticks)......Page 810
Order Opiliones (Harvestmen)......Page 812
Introduction......Page 814
Gravity Springs......Page 815
Artesian Springs......Page 816
Seeps and Wetlands......Page 817
Ebb-and-Flow Springs......Page 818
Analysis of Spring Hydrographs......Page 819
Turbidity and Chemical Variability......Page 820
Springs as Habitat......Page 821
Mineralogy and Processes of Formation......Page 822
Stalagmites......Page 824
Archives of the Deep Past......Page 826
Geologic Setting......Page 827
Diagnostic Features of Sulfuric Acid Caves......Page 828
Field Examples......Page 829
Cueva de Villa Luz, Mexico......Page 830
Frasassi Cave System, Italy......Page 832
Caves of the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico......Page 833
Caves of the Grand Canyon, Arizona......Page 834
Relation of Sulfuric Acid Caves to Mississippi Valley–Type Ore Deposits, Uranium Deposits, Hydrocarbons, and Reservoir Porosity......Page 835
Bibliography......Page 836
Types of Tiankengs......Page 838
Features of Tiankengs......Page 839
Bibliography......Page 841
Regional Geology and Hydrogeology......Page 844
Patterns and Mesomorphology of Caves......Page 846
Speleogenesis......Page 849
Underwater Caves of the Yucatán Peninsula......Page 850
Principles of U-Series Dating......Page 855
Reporting and Assessing U-Th Ages......Page 857
How Much Sample Material Is Needed for an Age Determination?......Page 858
Growth Dynamics of Speleothems......Page 859
Bibliography......Page 861
Cave-Dwelling Species......Page 862
Caves as Den Sites......Page 863
Impact of Birds and Mammals on Cave Ecology......Page 864
Man and Cavernicolous Birds and Mammals......Page 865
Overview of Biogeography......Page 866
Biogeography of Cave Animals......Page 867
Terrestrial Troglobites......Page 868
Aquatic Stygobites (Stygofauna)......Page 870
Bibliography......Page 874
Speleomorphology of Vjetrenica......Page 875
Microclimate......Page 877
Fauna......Page 878
Cultural History......Page 879
Exploration of Vjetrenica......Page 880
Bibliography......Page 881
Secondary Volcanic Rock Caves......Page 882
Primary Volcanic Rock Caves of Large Extent (Pyroducts)......Page 883
Internal Development......Page 884
General Types of Pyroducts......Page 886
Primary Volcanic Rock Caves of Limited Extent......Page 887
Hollow Tumuli, Peripheral Lava Rise Caves, and Drained Lobes......Page 888
Conclusions......Page 889
Bibliography......Page 890
Introduction......Page 892
Paleontology......Page 893
Hydrology......Page 894
Exploration and Mapping of Wakulla Spring Cave......Page 896
Limestone Dissolution and the Chemical Evolution of Cave Waters......Page 898
Chemical Composition of Groundwater in Limestone Terrain......Page 899
Saturation State of the Aqueous Solution......Page 900
Role of Strong Acids in Limestone Dissolution......Page 902
Precipitation of Minerals and the Formation of Speleothems From Cave Waters......Page 903
Definitions And Objectives Of Tracer Tests In Karst......Page 904
History of Water Tracing in Karst Aquifers......Page 905
Tracers......Page 907
Qualitative Tracing Using Passive Detectors......Page 908
Quantitative Water Tracing in Karst Areas......Page 910
Interpretation of Water Tracing Tests......Page 911
Introduction......Page 914
CerkniŠko Jezero/Polje......Page 916
Pivka Intermittent Lakes......Page 917
Protection of Karst Wetlands......Page 919
See Also the Following Articles......Page 920
Introduction......Page 921
Diagnostics......Page 922
Atypical Winter Behavior......Page 923
Wing Damage......Page 924
Current and Future Research......Page 925
Bibliography......Page 926
History of Studies......Page 927
Class: Temnocephalida......Page 928
Class: Polychaeta......Page 929
Class: Oligochaeta......Page 930
Class: Hirudinea (Leeches)......Page 931
Bibliography......Page 932
Index......Page 934